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LinkedInMāori and Pacific peoples' electoral participation in NZ - annotated bibliography
Introduction
The Electoral Commission commissioned Kim Summersby to compile this annotated bibliography of publicly accessible material that talks about Māori electoral participation and publicly accessible material that talks about
In compiling the bibliography no work was found relating primarily to
The original format of the titles of the sources is retained, including macrons however used in the original. Macrons are used appropriately in the rest of the bibliography.
The bibliography is provided on this page and in several forms and formats under downloads at rigtht.
- A Word document of the full annotated bibliography
- An Endnote library of the complete references, without the annotations.
- An Excel file containing the main details from the references, without the annotations.
If you have any suggestions of other works that could be considered for inclusion in this bibliography then please send full reference details to catt@elections.govt.nz. You do not need to provide an annotation.
When making use of this bibliography please acknowledge the compiler (Kim Summersby for records 1-129) and its provision by the Electoral Commission on the Elections New Zealand website, www.elections.org.nz
Alves - Cox
Alves, D., 1999. The Maori and the Crown: An Indigenous People’s Struggle for Self-Determination.
This is a study on the
Archer, K., 2003. Representing Aboriginal Interests: Experiences of
Archer, a Professor of Political Science at the
Atkinson, N., 2003. Adventures in Democracy: A History of the Vote in
This book was initiated by the Electoral Commission and looks at the role the vote has had in shaping the image of
Ballara, A., 2001. Wāhine Rangatira: Māori Women of Rank and their Role in the Women’s Kotahitanga Movement of the 1890s. In J. Binney (ed.) The Shaping of History: Essays from the
This chapter is a historical analysis of Māori women and the vote in both the Pākehā and Māori parliaments. It begins in 1893 when Māori women first asked to be granted the right to be included as electors of, and stand as, Members of Parliament. Ballara, a historian and current member of the Waitangi Tribunal, looks at the parallels and differences between Māori and Pākehā women movements of the 1890s. It focuses on the powerful Māori women who developed these Māori pressure groups. The editor of this collection describes the essays as those which highlight how the writing of history challenges our perceptions of ourselves. This is an interesting and insightful read which indeed challenges the stereotypes of the role of Māori women, particularly in the political arena.
Banducci, S., T. Donovan and J.A. Karp, 2004. Minority Representation, Empowerment, and Participation. Journal of Politics, 66 (2):534-56.
The authors, who all work within political science departments of American universities, examine the thesis that minority representation encourages political participation and positive attitudes amongst voters. Through empirical research on
Banducci and Karp, then researching at the
Bargh, M., 2004. Tiers of Confusion and Blurring Boundaries: Māori, the Local Government Act 2002 and the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS). Political Science, 56 (1):65-74.
Although this article by Bargh, a lecturer in the Political Science and International Relations programme at Victoria University, is not directly relevant to Māori electoral participation, it does astutely discuss the ramifications of marginalising Māori political power through a failure to clarify the relationship between Māori and local government. It is argued that due to the low rates of Māori participation in local government elections through voter turn-out and representation, the new option of separate Māori seats in local government is a voluntary attempt to redistribute political power. This work complements that of
Barker, F., J. Boston, S. Levine, E. McLeay and N.S. Roberts, 2003. An Initial Assessment of the Consequences of MMP in
The Victoria University of Wellington authors assess the impact of MMP on the
This book, written by political scientists from Victoria University of Wellington, examines the changes MMP has and will bring about, and assesses its potential impact on the political system. Data is drawn from a number of sources including comparative perspectives, international models, and a written questionnaire survey conducted in late 1995 on the views on opinion leaders. Information, analyses and predictions on Māori voting within the Māori electorates is spread throughout the book, but the index is fairly thorough and can easily direct the reader to a specific matter of interest. Of particular note is the short discussion on MMP, Māori and the Māori seats (pp.70-71). Only broad commentary is made on these matters though – statistical analysis on Māori voting is outside of the book’s perimeter. It is aimed at enhancing the
Bush, G., 1995. Local Government and Politics in
This is a comprehensive publication on nearly all aspects of
Catt, H., 1997. Women, Maori and Minorities: Microrepresentation and MMP. In J. Boston, S. Levine,
This book chapter looks at the idea of microcosmic representation – which was promoted by the Royal Commission of the Electoral Commission in 1986 – and how effective the first election held under MMP was in delivering more Māori and women into parliament. Catt, a former lecturer in the Political Science department of the
Catt, H., 1998. Representation. In R. Miller (ed.)
In this chapter Catt, current Chief Electoral Officer of the Electoral Commission, looks at the different ways the idea of representation is interpreted in
Catt, H., 1999. Democracy in Practice.
In this book concerning democratic practices in
Catt, H., 2000. The
This short commentary focuses on the demise of the three-term National government, the outcome of the 1999 election, the newly elected Labour coalition government, and the Citizens’ Initiated Referenda results. Catt, then a senior lecturer in the Political Studies department at the University of Auckland, highlights the lower level of voting in Māori electorates compared to general electorates, and the dramatic turn around in the representatives of Māori electorates where Labour regained all the seats NZ First had dominated for the first time in 1996. The author concludes that MMP had delivered on its promise of creating a parliament which increasingly mirrored the communities it represents. It is an easy to read summary of the main events surrounding the election, and therefore aimed at a broad audience.
Cavana, E., P. McMillen and S. Palmer, 2004. The Local Government New
This report looks at the voting patterns in the 2004 local government elections. More specifically, it explores the reasons why people did and did not vote, and their awareness levels of the elections. The research was conducted by telephone by BRC Marketing & Social Research on behalf of Local Government New Zealand, between 11 October and 10 November 2004. The councils and their communities that took part in the research were the Far North District Council, Auckland City Council, Manukau City Council, Wellington City Council, Marlborough District Council, Waimate District Council and Christchurch City Council. A wealth of qualitative and quantitative information is contained in this report, and tables are used to summarise the text. Unfortunately the results are not cross-tabulated by ethnicity, only by council. However informants are categorised as Māori,
Chapman, R., 1962. The General Result. In R. Chapman, W.K. Jackson, and A.V. Mitchell (eds),
This is a fairly date book, however it was published at a time when the study of elections was a relatively new research field in
Chapman, R., 1963. The Response to Labour and the Question of Parallelism of Opinion, 1928-1960. In R. Chapman and K. Sinclair (eds), Studies of a Small Democracy: Essays in Honour of Willis Airey.
In this book section, Chapman measures the level of acceptance of Labour in the 1930s. He does this through analysing the voting statistics of eight voting sections – special country, richer city, poorer city, marginal city, town, farmer, rural and Māori voters. Chapman explains how Māori voters, up until 1928, followed European voting trends. However for the next three decades this changed and a Māori MPs personal standing had a dramatic effect on who would be elected. The author outlines the unique nature of this group, and examines the voting strength and patterns of Māori electors up until 1960. He concludes that the Māori voter was in 1960 more meaningfully related to other
Chapman, R., 1999. Voting in the Māori Political Sub-System, 1935-1984. In E. McLeay (ed.)
This chapter first appeared as an Annex in the Report of the Royal Commission on the Electoral System (1986). The text is replicated in this source with few changes, however only one of the 20 graphs that were in the original publication have been retained. The detailed statistics and analysis relating to Māori representation, Māori voting patterns, and the support for each political party from 1935 to 1984 contained in this chapter are invaluable. Chapman, a former Professor of Politics, concludes that the Māori voting sub-system differs from the General system in a number of vital ways, including that Māori electors and MPs see to it that Māori issues are represented. This work was initially intended for a specialised audience of MPs and political scientists interested and involved in the debate on electoral change.
Chen, M., 1991. A Lawyer’s Perspective on Maori and Gender Issues in the 1990 General Election. In E.M. McLeay (ed.) The 1990 General Election: Perspectives on Political Change in
Chen, a prominent lawyer who specialises in public law and a former Law Lecturer at Victoria University, questions in this chapter why Labour lost a sizable number of votes from women and Māori in the 1990 election. She argues that these groups were more swayed by general economic issues promoted by National rather than the common social justice policies offered by Labour, therefore the concept of Māori or women’s issues may be relative. Chen also importantly highlights the crudeness of elections as mechanisms for indicating what policies people support. The papers and discussion chapters within the book are based on the proceedings of the 1990 General Election Conference held at
Chief Electoral Office, 2005. Voter/Non-Voter Satisfaction Survey.
The Chief Electoral Office commissioned TNS to undertake a survey aimed at reviewing the electoral experience of eligible voters and ascertain why they did or did not vote. The surveys on voters and non-voters began on 18 September 2005 and both were completed by 9 October 2005. A total of 1270 eligible voters were interviewed, which included 407 Māori participants and 166 participants classified as youth. All of the results have been tabulated, with Māori and youth participants classified separately, and clear statistical analyses are made of all the data. It is found that the three biggest factors that influenced Māori to not vote are a distrust of politicians, lack of interest in politics, and the feeling that whoever is elected does not impact on the voters’ everyday life. This is a very useful report with a wealth of statistical information on the reasons for voting and not voting.
Cleave, P., 1998. The
This book traces the linkages between the concepts peoples used to identify as Māori and ideas about social power. The author argues that there are larger, often pan-tribal, bodies that exist in Māoridom which do not negate the significance of whānau, hapū or iwi. Cleave believes that an appreciation of Māori society first requires an understanding of Māori relations with the Pākehā government. Included in this book are discussions on why the Māori electorates were created and the subsequent establishment of a Māori parliament. He also compares the nature of the Young Māori Party with the Kotahitanga movement. This book is not as clearly set out as it could be, however it contains important historical information on early Māori political participation. Cleave is a teacher and writer from Palmerston North.
Colmar Brunton’s Social Research Agency, 2003. MMP Monitor – October 2003 Summary Report.
Colmar Brunton was commissioned by the Electoral Commission to establish a benchmark measure on the voting public’s knowledge of MMP. The 2003 findings in this report are compared with previous surveys conducted since 1994. Methodologies of face-to-face and computer assistance telephone interviewing have both been employed. The 2003 survey involved 502 participants, which included 96 interviews with Māori and 93 interviews with
Comrie, M., A. Gillies and M. Day, 2002. The Maori Electoral Option Campaign: Problems of Measuring ‘Success’. Political Science, 54 (2):45-58.
This article questions the effectiveness of the campaign advertising the Māori Electoral Option during a four month period in 2001. The authors, lecturers at
Cox, L., 1993. Kotahitanga: The Search for Māori Political Unity.
Cox, a lecturer in the Department of Māori Studies at
Dahlberg - Justice and Electoral Committee
Dahlberg, T. R. M., 1996. Māori Representation in Parliament and Tino Rangatiratanga. He Pukenga Kōrero, 2(1):62-72.
Dahlberg critically analyses the history of Māori participation in the electoral system and assesses how it has impinged on Māori pursuits of tino rangatiratanga. The article looks at the barriers to the effective representation of Māori. The author believes that the government is the antithesis to tino rangatiratanga, and concludes that decolonisation of the state is required for tino rangatiratanga to be achieved. The definition of tino rangatiratanga is often difficult to ascertain, therefore the opening section of this article is helpful as it offers a number of interpretations of this phrase. The four page article ‘A Permanent Expedient’ by Keegan which precedes Dahlberg’s work in this journal would be beneficial to read first, as it gives a succinct response to the related question of whether MMP would offer Māori more than other electoral changes have in the past. The author is currently the Kaitautoko Māori at
de Varennes, F., 1998. Towards Effective Political Participation and Representation of Minorities. Commission on Human Rights.
de Varennes is currently an Associate Professor of Law at
Department of Internal Affairs, 1994. Local Government Candidates: 1992.
This report gives a range of insights into the people standing in local body elections. The statistical analysis is drawn from a survey of candidates for regional councils, mayoralties, territorial elections and community boards in 1992, which had a 77 per cent response rate. Amongst other factors such as gender, income and occupation, the authors found that only 4.4 per cent of candidates were of Māori ethnicity, and non-Pākehā candidates had a less than average chance of being elected. Unfortunately little data is collected in local government surveys on voters and candidates which concerns ethnicity. Any one interested in the representativeness of local government, voting behaviour, and the factors that influence decision making will find this report of great interest.
Drage, J. (ed.) 2002. Empowering Communities? Representation and Participation in
This edited book covers the changes that have recently occurred in local government which concern participation and representation. The focus is on how the changes will impact on the way individuals participate in the local government process. Drage, who at the time of publishing was a lecturer in the
Durie, M., 2001. Te Mana, Te Kāwanatanga: The Politics of Māori Self-Determination. South Melbourne:
At the time of publication, Durie was the Professor and Head of Department of Māori Studies at
Durie, M. 2003. Ngā Kāhui Pou: Launching Māori Futures.
This book contains selected conference papers delivered between 1999 and 2002 in
Durie, M., 2005. Ngā Tai Matatū: Tides of Māori Endurance. South Melbourne:
Professor Durie describes and analyses the position of Māori people and their interests at the start of the 21st century in this very readable, articulate and interesting book. It builds on his previous book Te Mana, Te Kāwanatanga (which is discussed above). Of specific interest is one of the latter chapters which concerns Māori in parliament. Here Durie looks at Māori participation and representation in parliament and local government, from the early Māori MPs up to the changes and effects generated from MMP. He analyses the 2002 general election and illustrates his work with tables on Māori Labour Party members and Māori party representation in this election. Durie also addresses why NZ First held so much appeal for Māori voters in 1996, as well as the backlash on Māori seats in both central and local government that followed Don Brash’s Orewa I speech. The author concludes that Māori are faced with the recurring dilemma of whether to stay in or outside the decision-making arena of the state. Either way, Durie argues that the Māori political voice has endured.
Electoral Commission, 2002. The
This is the third edition published by the Electoral Commission as a comprehensive summary of
Electoral Commission, 2005. Briefing to the Incoming Minister.
This is a briefing on the role of the Electoral Commission, their values and goals, the areas of concern, and issues that require ministerial consideration in the immediate future. Due to the incoming minister being new to this position, this report gives a clear and precise overview of the areas of most concern to
Farrell, M., 1992. Te Pooti Maaori: Maaori Representation and Electoral Reform.
Farrell completed this monograph while studying in the
Fleras, A., 1985. From Social Control towards Political Self-Determination? Maori Seats and the Politics of Separate Maori Representation in
Fleras is currently a Professor of Sociology at the
Fleras, A. and R. Maaka, 2005. The Politics of Indigeneity: Challenging the State in
The objective of this book is not to critically compare the Canadian and
Fleras, A. and P. Spoonley, 1999. Recalling Aotearoa: Indigenous Politics and Ethnic Relations in
Both researchers and lecturers in sociology, Fleras and Spoonley centre this book on the fairly recent changes to cultural and national identity in
Gould, J.D., 1994. Research Note: Calculating the Maori Electoral Population. Political Science, 46 (2):255-64.
This research note discusses a difficulty in calculating the Māori and General election populations, and subsequently the number of Māori and General seats. The main issue of difficulty is the ability to know how many people of Māori descent are enrolled on the General roll. The work contradicts the popular belief that large numbers of Māori are not enrolled to vote. Gould concludes that the strategy of Māori leaders to recruit Māori who were not previously enrolled and Māori enrolled on the General roll towards the Māori roll was misguided. This is because one addition to the Māori roll recruited from the General roll does more to boost the Māori electoral population than an addition from the ranks of the unenrolled Māori population. This work is useful to researchers interested in the movement of Māori between the two electoral rolls and its implications. It would be useful to refer to an earlier article in the same journal by Frank Nolan from Statistics New Zealand entitled ‘Maori Electoral Populations’ (Political Science, 45 (2):209-15).
This article, based upon the author’s MA research, contends that Arend Lijphart’s consociational model’s reliance on sub-state groupings is vital to a number of the features of that model and may increase instability. This limitation of Lijphart’s argument is demonstrated by analysing the efforts to incorporate Māori into the democratic system of
Harris, P., 2003. The Electoral Commission and the 2002 General Election. In J. Boston, S. Church, S. Levine, E. McLeay, and N.S. Roberts (eds),
Harris, then Chief Executive of the Electoral Commission, focuses this chapter on two of the Commission’s statutory responsibilities – election broadcasting allocations and increasing the public’s understanding of MMP. Here, the latter is of more importance. The author explains that the Commission’s objective is to assist electors to be sufficiently informed about their electoral choices so that they can make effective votes on Election Day. They monitor the levels of understanding of MMP, and have identified Māori and Pacific Islander’s (amongst young people and women) as most likely to lack adequate education of this issue. Tables are included which illustrate the level of these groups’ understanding of MMP and interest in politics from 1999 to 2002. For Māori, interest in politics declined slightly over this period, while the same issue for Pacific Islander peoples increased. Knowledge of how MMP works, however, increased for both Māori and Pacific Islanders. Samples that were collected in 1999-2002 included booster sampling of Māori respondents, and sampling of
This scoping report focuses on three major themes: the relationship between Māori, the Treaty of Waitangi and local government; Māori representation in local government; and Māori, local government and environmental management. The second part is of most interest here as it concerns the recent electoral changes which potentially impact on Māori electoral participation and representation. The author, a political scientist at the
Hazlehurst, K.M., 1993. Political Expression and Ethnicity: Statecraft and Mobilisation in the Maori World.
This book concentrates on pan-Māori tribalism, using the Mana Motuhake political party as a case-study. Hazlehurst, at the time of publishing a senior lecturer at Queensland University of Technology, concludes that the emergence of Mana Motuhake was in protest of a political system which did not meet Māori concerns, but failed because it did not appeal broadly to Māori ethnicity. Now that the Māori Party has been formed and currently have four members in Parliament, it will be interesting to see if similar findings can be reached. Although this book focuses on the political party itself, it contains many useful statistics on Māori voting behaviour and turnout across elections in the Māori electorates. A comprehensive glossary of Māori words is included.
Henderson, J. and P. Bellamy, 2002. Democracy in
Henderson and Bellamy look at the condition of democracy in
Hill, R.S. and V. O’Malley, 2000. The Māori Quest for Rangatiratanga/ Autonomy, 1840-2000.
This occasional paper concerns the determination of Māori to retain autonomy over their own affairs, in spite of the continuous attempts by the colonising government to subsume Māori culture and Māori institutions. It is a broad report which covers many areas of reclaiming and retaining rangatiratanga, which includes the early years of Māori voting and representation in the New Zealand parliament, the pan-tribal movements of Kotahitanga and Kingitanga, the emergence of Māori councils, and the threat by Mana Motuhake to break the Ratana-Labour alliance in the 1980s. The author concludes that the story of the Māori quest to retain their autonomy has always been known and felt by Māori, but most Pākehā have been fairly oblivious to it. This report aims to educate all New Zealanders on this part of our history. Hill is a historian and also the founder of the Treaty of Waitangi Research Unit, and O’Malley was at the time of publication the Research Quality Manager at the Crown Forestry Rental Trust.
This book looks at how and why
This thesis principally aims to investigate the factors that made the Eastern Māori Electorate unique by analysing its Māori voting participants. Amongst a range of others issues, it looks in detail why it took so long for the Ratana-Labour alliance to unseat National candidate Sir Apirana Ngata, the role of women in politics, and consideration is also given to whether separate Māori seats should continue. The primary research gathered during 1968-69 was extensive. In his comprehensive methodology (which is a great asset to the thesis), Jackson explains that initially 37 in-depth interviews were conducted followed by another 62; 328 people responded to a written questionnaire; campaign material was analysed; and quantitative data collected at the polling-booths was collated and examined for elections held from 1938-75. He concludes that tribal affiliations are a significant determinant in Māori voting. A wealth of material is also included in tables and the appendices which include voting figures for the electorate from 1928-75 in general, and split into urban and rural groupings; and also a list of the candidates and their party designation for this electorate. With little data available on why Māori vote and the substantive representation of Māori through the Māori electorate MPs, this continues to be a very important piece of work.
James, C., 2005. A Contest of Issues or a Contest of Wills?
James, a well-known and experienced political journalist and analyst, discusses in this paper the main issues and results of the 2005 general electoral campaign and election. In terms of Māori voting, James puts forward his ideas of why many Māori split their party and electorate votes, and also looks at the strength of the Māori Party. He concludes that the outcome in the Māori seats may possibly be the most important legacy of the 2005 election. As primarily an opinion piece, few hard statistics are included in this paper. However the somewhat informal writing style used makes the paper easy to read and understand, consequently embracing a wide audience.
James, C. and A. McRobie, 1990. Changes? The 1990 Election.
As part of a series of books which began with the 1978 election, this book acts as a guide to the 1990
Justice and Electoral Committee, 2002. Reports of Select Committees:
This is the Justice and Electoral select committee’s report on a Bill which subsequently established Māori electorates within the Environment Bay of Plenty council. The committee outlined the background to the Bill, which arose due to 28 per cent of the voting population being Māori, and half of the land in the region being owned by Māori, yet few Māori ever gaining a position at the council table. It outlines the way the number of Māori constituencies is to be established, which is dependent on the number of Māori voters electing to be enrolled on the Māori roll. The majority concluded that the significant proportion of Māori not engaging in local government through voting and standing for election is ‘powerful and irrefutable’ – an issue that is rarely at the forefront of local council’s concerns. The National and Act members of the committee gave an opposing, minority view.
Karp - Mulgan
Karp, J.A. and S. Banducci, 1999. The Impact of Proportional Representation on Turnout: Evidence from
This article relies on post-election survey data from the New Zealand Election Studies in 1990, 1993 and 1996, and examines the effects of MMP on the participation rates of minorities. It concludes that the change to a proportional representation electoral system was responsible for ‘a modest increase’ in efficacy about voting. Although the primary focus is on voter turnout generally, data related to Māori voters is compared under FPP and MMP. At the time of writing both authors were post-doctoral fellows at the
Kawharu, I.H. (ed.) 1989. Waitangi: Māori and Pākehā Perspectives of the Treaty of the Waitangi.
This edited collection by Sir Hugh Kawharu contains the views of different authors on the meaning and significance of the Treaty of Waitangi. Although an in depth chapter is not dedicated to Māori electoral participation, a number of the contributors touch on issues concerning the Māori franchise, the Māori electorates, reforming the electoral system, Māori representation, the role of Māori MPs, and the establishment of the Māori parliament. Contained in appendices to this book are the texts and translations of the Treaty of Waitangi and Te Tiriti o Waitangi, a glossary of Māori words and phrases, and a comprehensive index. This book is the predecessor to Waitangi Revisited published in 2005.
Levine, S. and R. Vasil, 1985. Maori Political Perspectives: He Whakaaro Māori mō ngā Ti Kanga Kāwanatanga.
This is a unique book based on interviews with 30 Māori participants on their diverse political perspectives. Drs Levine and Vasil, both foreign born and long-term
Lipson, L., 1948. The Politics of Equality:
This book on
Love, R.N., 1977. Policies of Frustration: The Growth of Maori Politics: The Ratana/Labour Era. Unpublished PhD,
A sizeable political science thesis on the Ratana Movement, Love examines in detail the new era of Māori politics which emerged where Māori worked actively inside the Pākehā system of government, instead of outside it. The author looks at the role of Māori in the political system and the achievements made by Ratana MPs. He examines the unsophisticated nature of voting Māori were required to endure where there were no electoral rolls for Māori voters, no ballot box, and no special votes. A very comprehensive theoretical framework is given including an outline of the Māori political position at the time. Appendices contain information on the Māori MPs from 1868-1967, the election results of Ratana contested elections up until 1949, and the qualifications required for a Ratana candidate. Love, a Professor of Business Development at Victoria University of Wellington, predicts that if Māori deprivation continues (which it has) Māori politics will take its demands outside of the mainstream political system.
Magallanes, C. I., 2003. Dedicated Parliamentary Seats for Indigenous Peoples: Political Representation as an Element of Indigenous Self Determination Murdoch University Electronic Journal of Law 10 (4).
This article focuses on the relevance of self-determination for indigenous political representation, and suggests that this topic has been neglected in the current debates concerning indigenous participation in political processes. The author looks at arguments for separate representation and the basic underpinning issues for this development to take place. The history and operation of the Māori parliamentary seats are discussed and then contrasted with the system of indigenous delegates in
Matunga, H., 1989. Local Government: A Maori Perspective.
Matunga offers his views during a time of local government reform on how iwi, a Treaty of Waitangi partner, should be able to influence policies and maintain tino rangatiratanga in and over local body activities. He gives an overview of traditional Māori ‘local government units’ which existed prior to European settlement and how they have continued developed up until the late 1980s. The political and staff representation of Māori is looked at, using the
McCracken, A. J., 1971. Māori Voting and Non-Voting: 1928-1969. Unpublished MA,
This Masters thesis analyses the effects of rapid Māori urbanisation and the Ratana movement on Māori voting behaviour. It is related to the broader question of separate Māori representation. The author concludes that the rise in Māori non-voting was due to administrative obstacles, the urban environment, and also a wider cultural malaise. There is vast amount of statistical information contained in the tables, maps, graphs and figures spread throughout the thesis and its appendices, although this data is mainly limited to the period from 1926 to 1971. A thorough report, this is aimed at academics and students who want a detailed analysis on the shift in Māori voting habits post World War II.
McLeay, E., 1991. Two Steps Forward, Two Steps Back: Maori Devolution, Maori Advisory Committees and Maori Representation. Political Science, 43 (1):30-46.
In this article, McLeay looks at three initiatives of the fourth Labour Government aimed at increasing Māori involvement in the decision-making process, with Māori representing Māori interests. One example looked at is the proposal by the Māori Council for half of the seats in local government to be in Māori hands. However, as she explains, a number of people expressed concern at this as it contravenes the one person – one vote principle, and because Māori seats are likely to not encourage other groups to compete for the Māori vote. McLeay looks at the legitimacy and justifications for group political representation, and the difficulty involved in reconstructing the
McLeay, E., 2005. Democratic Experiments in
This paper was presented at one of the Australian Senate’s public lectures. The author, an Associate Professor of Political Science at Victoria University of Wellington, discusses five democratic initiatives that have occurred in
McRobie, A., 1978. Ethnic Representation: The
This chapter concerns the situation of the Māori electorates in the late 1970s. McRobie looks at the history of Māori representation; the separatist legislation which barred Māori from participating in the General electorates until 1976, and non-Māori from standing in Māori electorates until 1967; and the recent moves to reform these seats. The author then turns to the statistics available on Māori voter turnout and informal and disallowed votes between 1949 and 1975. McRobie concludes that the
McRobie, A., 1980. The Electoral System the 1978 Election. In H.R. Penniman (ed.)
The purpose of this chapter is to examine three elements of the electoral system during the 1978 general election – the statutory provisions, the procedures for redistricting elections, and the regulation of the elections themselves. Here, we are concerned predominantly with the first section which covers separate Māori voting and representation. McRobie describes the then four Māori seats as ‘not even pretending’ to uphold the ideals of equality, justice or fairness. He gives a brief historical overview of the motives for their establishment, their inherently discriminatory nature, and discusses the lack of redefinition of Māori electorates. Due to the 40 per cent lower voter turnout rate in Māori electorates and the monopolisation of the seats by Labour, McRobie concludes that Māori should be encouraged to transfer to and stand for election in general seats. At the time of publishing the author was a lecturer in Social Sciences at the
McRobie, A., 1984. Election ’84.
In this short book, McRobie dedicates the majority of it to the election night figures, final results, enrolment figures, turnout percentage and classification of each general and Māori electorate in the 1984 general election. Comparisons are provided with data from the 1978 election. He provides background details of the 1981 general election, the 1983 electoral redistribution and its political effects, and a short commentary on each electorate. The author strongly urges readers to refer to the complementary study Election ’78 (outlined below) for fuller discussions and explanations of electoral redistributions and reallocations of votes between electoral boundaries. A select bibliography is included as a supplement to that provided in Election ’78. McRobie, a political analyst, provides all the relevant statistical data from the 1984 election.
McRobie, A., 2003. Elections and the Electoral System. In R. Miller (ed.)
In this chapter McRobie, a specialist political analyst and electoral consultant, very broadly looks at voting and elections held in
McRobie, A. and N.S. Roberts, 1978. Election ’78: The 1977 Electoral Redistribution and the 1978 General Election in
This book primarily concerns the effects of changing the electoral boundaries, and offers comparisons between the 1972 and 1975 election results with those of the general election held in 1978. It is aimed at an audience interested in electoral politics. The statistics on voting behaviour in each general and Māori electorate in the 1972 and 1975 elections are given, as well as a short commentary on any alterations made by the Representation Commission. Two sections concern Māori representation and the relatively high level of Māori who had failed to register on either of the electoral rolls. At the time of publishing, McRobie lectured at the
McVey, A. and J. Vowles, 2005.
The authors challenge the assumption that the decline in political participation in
Mead, S.M., 1997. Maori Representation. In S.M. Mead (ed.) Landmarks, Bridges and Visions: Aspects of Maori Culture.
This is a replica of Mead’s submission to the Royal Commission on the Electoral System in 1999, which asks three crucial questions: How can Māori be given a greater share in government; how can the political process be made more effective for Māori; and how can this process be integrated into Māori social, economic and political interests? The author emphasises the need for Māori voters registered on the Māori roll to have real power and influence over the election outcome, as well as the dignity that accompanies those values which has been negated in the past through the inability of the Māori seats to increase from four. Mead was the Professor of Māori Studies at
Presented in this book are social, political and economic views from 17 Māori people on the issue of Māori sovereignty. Of particular relevance are the chapters by Members of Parliament Sandra Lee and Peter Tapsell, who speak of their experiences participating in government. They offer unique insights to what it means to represent their electorate (Lee was in a general electorate, Tapsell was in a Māori electorate), the forecasted effects of the introduction of MMP, and the importance of Māori political participation. This book is intended to reach a wide audience through providing informed and stimulating debate. A short profile on each of the informants is given, and a glossary is also included.
Metge, J., 1976. The Maoris of
Dame Joan Metge is a respected anthropologist. This main focus of this book is on Māori culture and society, from pre-1800 to the 1970s. It covers many areas of Māori life and as such has become an indispensable resource for students and researchers interested in this area. Of particular interest is Metge’s section on political association within chapter 13. She looks at the alliance Māori voters had with Labour since 1943 through the dominance of the Ratana Church within Māori politics; the lower proportion of valid votes amongst Māori compared to Pākehā; the possible reasons Māori choose to be registered the general roll at the time; and the continued debate about the retention of the Māori seats. She also directs readers to other resources on Māori politics concerning both the local and central government level. The appendix contains information on the spelling and pronunciation of Māori words, and a 17 page glossary is also included.
Miller, R., 1999.
Miller examines the consequences of electoral reform on candidate selection in
Miller, R., 2005. Party Politics in
This book focuses on the internal and external changes and consequences to political parties through the shift to MMP. Amongst other topics, Miller, a Senior Lecturer in the
Ministry of Social Development, 2005. The Social Report 2005: Te Pūrongo Oranga Tangata.
This edition of the Social Report is the fourth in an annual series of reports on social well-being in
Miskin, S., 2005.
Miskin gives a brief four page overview of the 2005 general election campaign, election outcome, voter turnout and the potential issues facing the government in the current parliamentary term. Tables comparing the 2002 and 2005 election results usefully illustrate the changes of the party and electorate votes, as well as the dramatic changes in the vote share amongst the major and minor parties between these two elections. Voting in the Māori electorates is briefly analysed, with explanations given for Māori turning to a party that represents their specific interests. Research Notes are designed to provide information, analysis and advice to the Parliament of Australia; hence the intended audience are Members of Parliament. Miskin is currently a researcher in the Politics and Public Administration group at the Australian Parliamentary Library.
Mulgan, R., 1989. Māori, Pākehā and Democracy.
The focus of this book by Professor Mulgan,
Mulgan, R., 2004. Politics in
This book clearly and comprehensively covers the main political institutions in
Nagel - Sullivan
Nagel, J.H., 1994. What Political Scientists Can Learn from the 1993 Electoral Reform in
Nagel, then a Professor at the
Nagel, J.H., 2004. Stormy Passage to a
The focus of Nagel’s article is on some of the positive aspects of the
This document was published prior to the first MMP election in 1996. It argues that the Māori vote can make a substantial difference to how Parliament will be made up and therefore Māori should be prepared to make an informed vote. This kete is designed to assist whānau, hapū and iwi to promote the message to political parties that Māori are voting for the party with the best policies concerning Māori education and Māori issues. The key phrase throughout the booklet is ‘Māori must be prepared to vote’. It encourages Māori to vote to ensure more Māori are in parliament and can subsequently access the decision-making process. It also encourages Māori to mobilise their whānau and enrol because MMP is a ‘whole new ball game’ with added reason to start a pattern of voting. It educates Māori on the difference between, and importance of, the party vote and the electorate vote. The authors also look at three key election issues for Māori: tino rangatiratanga, constitutional development and Māori education. Clearly, the intended audience is Māori non-voters, and gives added assistance by listing free-phone numbers for readers to access further information without cost.
Nicholson, D. and S. Dawn, 1990. Vote: 1990! A Literacy Kit to Help You Have Your Say in the 1990 Elections.
This short booklet is primarily aimed at young people who have little knowledge on voting and elections, but who want to make an informed choice on Election Day. Short articles, illustrations, questions and answers, diagrams, and crosswords are all used to attract its intended audience and hold their attention. A section on Māori representation in Parliament and participation through the four Māori electorates is written in short, clear and logical sentences and paragraphs to make it easy to understand. An article by Paul B. Tem Q.C. is included to help readers appreciate the injustices committed against Māori and why the Treaty of Waitangi is an election issue. This work, although limited in content, aptly fits the cause it is designed for.
Norton, C., 1988.
This is a comprehensive compilation of the results of successive
O'Sullivan, D., 1999. The 1996 General Election and the Labour Vote in the Māori Electorates. He Pukenga Korero, 5 (1):40-56.
The main question of this article is why Labour candidates so emphatically lost the Māori vote in the Māori electorates in the 1996 election. The
O’Sullivan, D., 2004. The Politics of Indigeneity and Contemporary Challenges to Māori Self-Determination. Australasian Political Science Association Conference. 29 September – 1 October 2004,
This conference paper looks at the tension between the currently popular ‘one law for all’ rhetoric and Māori aspirations for self-determination. O’Sullivan argues that it is only through representative government that full and effective Māori political participation can occur. However the limited voting strength of Māori hinders self-determination. The ‘one person, one vote, one value’ principle advocated by Dr Brash and the National Party is flawed according to the author, because the value of a vote cast in a Māori electorate in central or local government is no greater than a vote cast in a general electorate. He believes this debate is about participation in the electoral process and the restrictions thereof. This is an insightful and interesting paper argued from a collectivist point of view. O’Sullivan works in the Māori Education Research Unit of the
Reeves, S., 1996. To Honour the Treaty: The Argument for Equal Seats.
Reeves, a practising lawyer and graduate from the University of Auckland and the University of Virginia, argues in this fairly short 84 page book that the number of Māori parliamentary seats should be significantly increased to better reflect the promises made under the Treaty of Waitangi. Although MMP can facilitate small changes, this will not alone bring about an effective bicultural parliament which Reeves advocates. He argues that the one person – one vote principle effectively deprives Māori of being represented. There is particular emphasis to the arguments made by the Report of the Royal Commission on the Electoral Commission concerning the effectiveness of the Māori vote under plurality electoral systems. This book is set out clearly and logically in 16 short, thematic chapters. The texts of the Treaty of Waitangi and a glossary of Māori words used are included in appendices to the book.
Rei, Tania, 1993. Māori Women and the Vote.
This is a historical overview and analysis of Māori women’s involvement in the suffrage movements, predominately concentrating on the years 1890 to 1910. Māori women sought the right to vote in the New Zealand Parliamentary elections (achieved in 1893), and the right to vote and stand for election in the Māori Parliament, Te Kotahitanga (achieved in 1897). This short book is presented in an easy to read format to appeal to a wide, general audience. Information is split equally between the main text, and pictorial and written examples to add to the story. These examples include 19th century Māori newspapers, satirical cartoons of Māori women’s plight to vote, profiles of Māori MPs, and photographs of election days and hui. It includes a time line from 1840 to 1993 of legislation and events concerning Māori women’s participation and representation in Parliament.
Rei, T., A. Tangohau, R. Smith and M.-L. Ormsby, 1993. Māori Women and the Franchise.
This short six page document discusses the two suffrage movements of Māori women. The first is Māori women who sought to vote in the New Zealand House of Representatives, and the second is women who sought to vote and stand as members of the Māori parliament, Kotahitanga. It looks at the early attitudes of Māori MPs on these issues, franchise petitions that circulated at the time, and the electoral registration restrictions that were once in place. Excerpts are taken from Tania Rei’s book Māori Women and the Vote (discussed above). The final page is very useful for researchers, which is the intended audience of this booklet, as it offers information on how to access further resources from the 1880-1900 newspapers, manuscripts, official publications, photographic sources and secondary sources.
Research Services for Local Government Services, 2002. Local Government Candidates 2001: A Survey of Local Authority Election Candidates in the 2001 Local Authority Elections.
Published as a companion to the Local Authority Elections Statistics 2001 report and only the second of its kind put out, this is based on a survey of local government candidates prior to the 2001 October elections. The response rate was 63 per cent. The report looks at the typical profile of local government candidates. It found that a candidate would most likely be a professional male, aged over 45 years, and Pākehā. Very few statistics are available on the ethnicity of local body councillors as it is not compulsory to record these details, therefore this report is fairly valuable despite its small section relating to Māori participation as candidates. Not only are ethnicity and ancestry statistics reported on, but also on identity. There are significant differences between these variables and therefore it would be useful to read Tahu Kukutai’s Social Policy Journal of New Zealand 2004 article ‘The Problem of Defining an Ethnic Group for Public Policy: Who is Maori and Why Does it Matter?’ to explain why the disparities exist.
Rikys, P., 2004. Local Government Reform and Māori: 1988 to 2002.
This is a study on the relationship between Māori and local government, particularly during the reforms of 1988-89 and 2000-01, with a focus on Māori representation and participation in policy formulation. It also looks at the recently enacted Local Government Bill and the predicted effects on Māori. Rikys has had extensive involvement in local government activities as a publisher, commentator and consultant, and his wide-ranging knowledge shows through in this comprehensive book. The author finds that Māori have been largely marginalised throughout the reforms and there is a considerable need to promote effective Māori engagement and participation in local government. The book is written to highlight and explain these findings to people associated within local and central government – at all levels including the representatives, management and administrators – and also the
Royal Commission on the Electoral System, 1986. Report of the Royal Commission on the Electoral System "Towards a Better Democracy".
The main focus of this report is on the fairness and equality of the way the votes cast in general elections are translated into seats and representation in parliament. This report was highly influential in replacing the established FPP electoral system with the MMP system in 1993, with MMP first used in the 1996 general election. Five highly qualified authors (whose backgrounds range from political studies to statistics to law) compiled this comprehensive and articulate report. It contains a large amount of significant information on the Māori electorates, Māori representation, and Māori voter turnout. The appendices and annex complement the report well. Of note are articles written by M. P. K. Sorrenson and Robert Chapman (which are both excellent papers and warrant separate discussion in this annotated bibliography), the tables of Māori and non-Māori representatives in parliament from 1890 to 1984, and the election results of the Māori electorates from 1890 to 1984. This book is extremely useful and relevant to all aspects of Māori politics and elections, despite being nearly twenty years old. It provides extensive information on electoral systems and its impact on Māori political representation and participation.
Selby, R.A. (ed.) 2005. Walking the Talk: A Collection of Tariana’s Papers. Otaki: Te Wānanga-o-Raukawa.
Tariana Turia is the MP for the Te Tai Hauauru electorate and co-leader of the Māori Party - a political party which was formed following the debate on the Foreshore and Seabed legislation where Turia crossed the floor and voted against her party, and resigned from Labour. This is a selection of the papers she has delivered over the past six years. The first section is of most significance here, as it addresses issues which reflect the changing political climate. Turia passionately advocates for meaningful and effective political representation and participation of Māori in government, and also encourages Māori to register on the Māori role and vote. This collection will appeal to a wide audience, as the papers she delivered were to a broad range of listeners.
Sharp, A., 2002. Blood, Custom and Consent: Three Kinds of Māori Groups in New Zealand and the Challenges they Present to Governments and the Constitution.
Sharp is a Professor of Political Science and has written extensively on Māori claims for justice in
Simpson, Alan C, 1985. Redistributing the Māori Vote: 1972-1984.
Political scientist, Simpson, attempts to predict the likely scenario of Māori representation should the then four Māori parliamentary seats be abolished, based on the results of the five general elections between 1972 and 1984. The first ten pages are dedicated to explaining the author’s findings. He concludes that Māori would be better represented through separate Māori seats. The appendices to this analysis hold valuable information on Māori voter turnout. The first appendix contains summaries of the main alterations of the electorates between 1972 and 1981. The latter provides the general election results for all Māori and General electorates between 1972 and 1984, displaying each party’s share of the votes from both the general roll and the Māori roll. This work attracts academics and those making decisions on the electoral system. At its time, it was a vital addition to the debate on whether or not to abolish the Māori seats.
Sinnott, C., 1994. Māori Participation in the Electoral System. We Have the Electoral Act 1993, Now What? Unpublished LLB(Hons),
A graduate student in the Law faculty of
Sorrenson, M. P. K., 1986. A History of Maori Representation in Parliament. In Royal Commission on the Electoral System (ed.) Report of the Royal Commission on the Electoral System “Towards a Better Democracy”.
This work by Professor Sorrenson of the
Stokes, E. (ed.) 1981. Māori Representation in Parliament.
This compilation focuses on the arguments relating to the retention or abolition of the separate Māori seats in parliament, including a chapter reviewing the relevant literature published to date on Māori representation. It was designed to bring further informed debate to an issue described as being faced by all New Zealanders, therefore aimed at a wide audience. It contains articles written by Evelyn Stokes and Robert Mahuta, who have both worked at the
Sullivan, A., 1998. Maori Politics and Government Policies. In R. Miller (ed.)
At the time a lecturer in the Department of Political Science and Public Policy at the University of Waikato, Sullivan has based this chapter is based her PhD thesis. It looks at the government policies directed at Māori from 1840, and Māori participation in the electoral system pre- and post-MMP. The author explains how Māori were effectively denied the vote despite never being formally excluded due to article three of the Treaty of Waitangi. She also looks at the separate regulations which marginalised Māori voters until 1975. The types of Māori voters are also explored, as well as the demographic voting factors of Māori which contribute to inhibiting electoral empowerment. Sullivan concludes that Māori need an adequate resource base to be self-determining and play a more substantial role in their own future. This book will appeal to anyone interested in
Sullivan, A., 2003. Effecting Change Through Electoral Politics: Cultural Identities and the Māori Franchise. Journal of the Polynesian Society, 112 (3):219-37.
This article focuses on the development of the Māori right to vote, and how the overall effect has been an enhancement of cultural identity and Māori nationhood. Sullivan, a political scientist, opens with a discussion on the New Zealand Constitution Act 1852, where Māori were effectively excluded from voting, and documents the developments up until the 2002 general election, where Māori are now represented in proportion to their population. The author also discusses the competing views of democracy – collective and individualism – and how these arguments affect the issue of separate Māori representation. This article is intended for an audience interested in Māori politics and development. Statistics on the number of Māori MPs following the general elections between 1990 and 2002 are included.
Sullivan, A., 2003. Māori Representation in Local Government. In J. Hayward (ed.) Local Government and the Treaty of Waitangi.
This chapter, in a book devoted to the relationship between the Treaty of Waitangi and local government, focuses on the recent electoral changes to local government and its potential impact on Māori representation. The argument of separate Māori representation is raised, and questions whether it should be viewed as separatism or inclusion. A specific audience of academics and local government players is aimed at, adding to and informing debate on Māori electoral participation and representation. The case study on Environment Bay of Plenty – the only local authority to establish Māori wards or constituencies to date – provides much information on the reasons for and against separate Māori electoral representation. Sullivan is a political scientist working within the Māori Studies Department of the
Sullivan, A., 2005. The Treaty of Waitangi and Social Well-being: Justice, Representation, and Participation. In M. Belgrave, M. Kawharu, and D. Williams (eds), Waitangi Revisited: Perspectives on the Treaty of Waitangi. South Melbourne:
Sullivan, Associate Professor of Māori Studies at the
Sullivan, A., and D. Margaritis, 2000. Māori Voting Patterns in 1999. In J. Boston, S. Church, S. Levine, E. McLeay and N. S. Roberts (eds.), Left Turn: The
The authors, then both lecturing at the
Sullivan, A. and D. Margaritis, 2002. Coming Home? Māori Voting in 1999. In J. Vowles, P. Aimer, J. Karp, S. Banducci, R. Miller, and A. Sullivan (eds), Proportional Representation on Trial.
This is a comprehensive and highly statistical analysis of the voting choices of those registered in Māori electorates for the 1999 election. Extensive comparisons between the 1996 election (where NZ First won all 5 Māori seats) and the 1999 election (which saw Māori voters return to their traditional support of Labour) are made. This article questions whether Māori are strategic voters, and why Māori voters gave their support back to Labour following the dramatic shift to NZ First. Both authors at the time of publishing lectured at the
Sullivan, A. and J. Vowles, 1998. Realignment? Māori and the 1996 Election. In J. Vowles, P. Aimer,
This chapter centres on the outcome of the Māori electorates in the 1996 general election, and the context which brought about the change. All five Māori electorates were won by NZ First candidates, breaking Labour party’s 50-year stronghold of the Māori seats. The 1996 New Zealand Electoral Survey oversampled people on the Māori electoral rolls to get a better understanding of the opinions and attitudes of Māori voters. 614 were sampled on the Māori roll, via telephone and mail surveys. It was the fourth NZES study in successive general elections. It is concluded that the dramatic shift to voting for NZ First was probably due to Māori having an agenda focused on the Treaty of Waitangi and the desire for a more powerful social, economic, and political role for Māori. The political scientist authors were, at this time, both lecturing at the
Tabacoff - Yang
Tabacoff, D., 1975. The Role of the Maori MP in Contemporary
This is one of the few articles written on the substantive representation of Māori, and also questions why Māori voters have predominantly elected Labour candidates up until this point. It focuses on the role played by Māori MPs from Māori electorates, and how they are constrained through the framework of party politics. Tabacoff has spoken with the then four current Māori MPs to gauge their views on what a Māori MP should be and do. The article is now somewhat out of date in the current MMP environment, but the hypotheses considered are still relevant tody – is role of an MP the same for all representatives, or do Māori MPs perform unique functions? At the time of writing, Tabacoff was a Fullbright scholar in the Department of Political Studies at the
Tamihere, J., 2003. Campaigning in a Maori Seat. In J. Boston, S. Church, S. Levine, E. McLeay, and N.S. Roberts (eds),
This chapter is written in the first person and based on Tamihere’s own experiences campaigning in a Māori electorate. To Tamihere, the focus is on ensuring the party vote remains high by encouraging Māori voters to not split their votes, and choose his party, Labour, in both the party and electorate votes. He predicts that without the Māori seats the development of a separate Māori party will be inevitable. Ironically this has now occurred, but the Māori Party is currently in parliament because it utilised those seats. The author also looks at the low voter turnout in Māori electorates, and believes this may be due to the lack of competition within these seats and the need to get voters involved through encouragement. He believes that the level of Māori voter turnout is an issue that must be addressed. Tamihere was unseated in the 2005 general election by Māori Party candidate and co-leader Pita Sharples.
Te Puni Kōkiri, 1993. Electoral Reform Bill and Māori Representation: A Discussion Document.
Te Puni Kōkiri, the Ministry of Māori Development, compiled this short seven-page report prior to the referendum on the electoral system. Its intended audience is iwi Māori, and is designed to be an informative overview of the Electoral Reform Bill and a discussion document concerning the implications of MMP for Māori. The report clearly sets out how to vote under MMP and what each vote means. However, the majority of this report has quickly become irrelevant. It is written with the assumption that the Māori electorates would be abolished under MMP and that Māori parties would have a lower threshold to cross. Despite these limitations, it still contains material of interest to students of Māori electoral participation as it outlines why Māori have felt disenfranchised through the Māori electoral roll due to the lack of competition for the Māori vote.
Trapski, P.J., 1998. The Proposal to Establish a Maori Constituency for Environment
Judge Trapski was appointed in mid-1998 to conduct hearings and report on the proposal to introduce Māori seats on to Environment Bay of Plenty (EBOP), and later recommended that EBOP should promote the establishment of Māori constituencies within their council. Some of the main reasons for this conclusion were that Māori comprise 28 per cent of the Bay of Plenty population yet rarely gain representation; Māori feel EBOP is unrepresentative; the submissions received on the issue overwhelmingly supported the establishment of Māori constituencies; and that the proposal is constitutionally sound and reflects the current delivery of democracy in New Zealand. It was felt that Māori would be guaranteed political participation in their local council, something that had been lacking for some time, if this proposal was acted upon. This report is concise but argues convincingly the validity of separate Māori representation. It will be of interest and use to other Māori communities who feel separate Māori representation is required in their region to ensure fair participation in the decision-making process.
Vowles, J., 2004. Civic Engagement in
Professor Vowles focuses this lecture on the decline in political participation - notably voter turnout - in
Vowles, J. and P. Aimer, 1993. Voter’s Vengeance: The 1990 Election in
This book is based on the 1990 New Zealand Election Survey completed by over 2000 New Zealanders registered on the General and Māori electoral rolls. Where appropriate, comparisons are made with the 1987 NZES (which was based on telephone 1013 interviews). This book covers all areas of the 1990 election and voting behaviour, including the impact and demise of the Fourth Labour government and the implications and predictions for the future. Due to its broad scope, Māori voting (and non-voting) patterns are a small, but highly important, part of the research. Māori voting figures are given and analysed, and the relationship between Labour and the
Vowles, J. and P. Aimer (eds), 1994. Double Decision: The 1993 Election and Referendum in
This edited book concerns the extent of the interconnectedness of the general election and electoral reform referendum held on 6 November 1993. Contributions and perspectives are given from the four main political parties, and from pro- and anti-MMP groups. More academic style articles are also provided which involve analyses of the structure of the issue agenda in the election, survey results on voting patterns, electoral responses in the 1992 and 1993 referendums, and speculations of what the future holds. Māori voting power is discussed in the chapter on the Labour party, and McRobie analyses the preferred electoral system of the Māori electorates. The book is set out with chapters split into four main sections, with discussions that follow involving the authors of the book. This helps to clarify and explain many of the issues raised of the preceding chapters. The book is aimed at people involved and interested in electoral reform and outcomes in
Vowles, J., P. Aimer, S. Banducci, J. Karp and R. Miller (eds), 2004. Voters' Veto: The 2002 Election in
Although there is not a dedicated chapter in this book on Māori participation and representation as there is in other books in the New Zealand Election Survey series, the authors continue to look at these issues amongst many others concerning the general election. The book focuses on the early general election of 2002 which resulted in a successive Labour-led government. The key objective of the book is to assess the importance of public debate, public opinion and knowledge about government. Māori continued to support Labour, particularly in the Māori electorates, with the NZ First party holding the second highest proportion of their party votes. This time the NZES surveyed five groups: a ‘New General Sample’ randomly selected from the electoral rolls; ‘Election to Election Panels’ which involved respondents from 1996 and 1999 NZES; a pre- and post-campaign group; an over-sample from the Māori electoral rolls for the ‘Maori Election Study; and the ‘Candidate Study’. More tables are contained in the appendices than the previous books. One of significance relates to social structure and voting choices, as both Māori and
Vowles, J., P. Aimer, H. Catt, J. Lamare and R. Miller, 1995. Towards Consensus? The 1993 Election in
The primary focus of this book is on the general election and referendum on the electoral system held in 1993. The authors of this book, all political scientists, analyse the results of the election and the possible implications now that MMP has been chosen as the preferred electoral system. It is based on data from the 1993 New Zealand Election Survey study – the third year the NZES has operated. Questionnaires were mailed out to two groups: registered electors, and candidates and party activists. Nearly 3,000 people replied. The chapter on electoral participation looks at the theories and ideas why certain groups (such as Māori) are more likely to be non-voters. It also discusses how respondents felt about the number of Māori seats there are in parliament, and which groups wanted to change to MMP (which included Māori). There is limited data on the way Māori voted in the General or Māori electorates, but this is because the study is mainly aimed at the attitudes and opinions of electors. There are many tables, graphs and diagrams which complement the main text.
Vowles, J., S.A. Banducci and J.A. Karp, 2005. Forecasting and Evaluating the Consequences of Electoral Change in
The political scientist authors evaluate the validity of the claims about the predicted effects of
Vowles, J., A. Sullivan, P. Aimer, R. Miller,
One of the New Zealand Election Study’s contractual obligations is to determine the effects of electoral system change on Maori political behaviour and attitudes together with the effects of other political, social, and economic variables. In this report to the Electoral Commission the authors found that most New Zealanders favoured the retention of the Māori seats, at least at their then current number of six; Māori differ little from other New Zealanders on who should decide on this issue of the retention of the Māori seats; the provisions for determining the number of Māori electorates is correct (in the author’s view); turnout is lower in the Māori electorates because their voting populations are younger than average; and that the change to MMP has brought about an overall increasing in voter turnout, particularly amongst Māori. Tables are included in the appendix to visually illustrate the results of the NZES opinion surveys conducted between 1993 and 1999. Not only is the report of direct interest to the Electoral Commission, the statistical analysis is also useful to others researching in the area of electoral reform and voters’ opinions.
Waaka, M., 2005. Local Government. In M. Mulholland (ed.) State of the Māori Nation: Twenty-First-Century Issues in Aotearoa.
This chapter is written from the perspective of Waaka, a Rotorua District Councillor. She looks at the role of a Māori councillor and the recent changes that have been made to local government legislation to provide Māori with better avenues to participate in the governing of their communities. Waaka speaks of her own struggles within an older, Pākehā, male dominated arena, and the progress that she has been able to make. She concludes that local politics should be taught in schools to encourage better participation in this crucial area of governance. This book will appeal to a wide range of New Zealanders, as it gives a snapshot of 22 modern issues from a Māori point of view.
Waitangi Tribunal, 1994. Māori Electoral Option Report (Wai 413).
This Treaty of Waitangi claim arose following the introduction of the MMP electoral system to general elections. The claimants argued that the Crown has a Treaty of Waitangi obligation to protect the right to Māori representation and the preceding need to promote Māori enrolment and education on the Māori electoral option, and that the funding provided by the Government was inadequate. The Tribunal recommended that the Crown increase the funding to achieve the maximum possible enrolment of Māori electors. This would facilitate an increase in Māori enrolments and subsequently enhance the effectiveness of Māori participation in the electoral process. Naturally, this source focuses heavily on the relevant Treaty principles to Māori electoral participation, which makes it a fairly unique source. M. P. K. Sorrenson, who wrote an appendix to the Report of the Royal Commission on the Electoral System, was one of the Tribunal members hearing and adjudicating on claim.
Walker, R., 1979. The Maori Minority and the Democratic Process. In J.S. Hoadley (ed.) Improving
Emeritus Professor Walker looks at the differences between traditional Māori decision-making through consensus, and the central executive power which dictates laws made in the
Walker, R. (ed.) 1985. Nga Tumanako: Maori Representation Conference.
This edited book includes the agenda and proceedings of the Māori Representation Conference; an introduction and paper by Ranginui Walker (now Emeritus Professor of Māori Studies); a list of workshop attendees and their results; and papers and contributions by former Prime Minister David Lange, then President of the Mana Motuhake party Arapeta Tahana, then Race Relations Conciliator H. Tauroa, political scientists Alan Simpson and Evelyn Stokes, and Tainui leader Robert Mahuta amongst others. It is a comprehensive collection of history, legislation and perspectives relating to the Māori franchise, participation and representation. This was initially aimed at the members of the Royal Commission of the Electoral System and politicians by uncovering the discriminatory nature of the then current electoral structures; however this book is now a useful resource for any student or interested person of Māori politics despite being published 20 years ago. It contains many helpful appendices containing newspaper clippings on Māori representation, an outline of the boundaries of the Māori electorates, the numerous ways ‘Māori’ has been defined in legislation, census forms and courts, and the relevant provisions of the Electoral Act 1956 and its amendments in 1975, 1976 and 1980.
Walker, R., 1987. Ngā Tau Tohetohe: Years of Anger.
This is a collection of Emeritus Professor Walker’s ‘Korero’ columns from the New Zealand Listener. They span 15 years during the height of Māori activism, and hold a constant message throughout of the inertia of racism. Chapter five of this book focuses on the difficulty of being a minority group and trying to gain an effective political voice. Naturally, these pieces are argued from a Māori perspective. Included in this chapter are papers on the ease with which Māori can be outvoted in parliament which results in the tyranny of the majority, the Mana Motuhake political party, the significance of separate Māori seats, the restraints on Māori representatives due to long-standing party loyalty, and the importance of Māori voters registering on the Māori electoral roll. The columns were aimed for readers of the magazine they were originally published in, therefore they are written in a very clear and direct manner.
Walker, R., 1992. The Māori People: Their Political Development. In H. Gold (ed.)
A concise yet surprisingly thorough chapter, Emeritus Professor of Māori Studies Walker discusses the political development of Māori from colonisation up until the election of the National party to government in 1990. Included in this chapter are details Māori nationalism manifested in the Kotahitanga and King movements, Māori representation, the dynamic nature of Māori politics, the Ratana/Labour relationship, the New Zealand Māori Council, the Mana Motuhake political party of the 1980s, and Māori voting behaviour during each of these periods. The author concludes that Māori resistance to assimilation and the policy of ‘one law for all’ will continue despite repeated attempts to assert colonial hegemony over Māori and their interests. The book is generally aimed at a wide audience seeking a comprehensive and well-balance account of
Walker, R., 2004. Ka Whawhai Tonu Matou: Struggle Without End.
This revised edition is a history of
Wall, L.H., 2001. Te Mana Whenua o Aotearoa i Whakaaturia o te Kawanatanga nga Whakapapa o Matou Uni: Indigenous Representation as Members of Parliament: Motivation and the Link to Tupuna/Tipuna. Unpublished MPhil,
This thesis is based on interviews with six Māori women Members of Parliament and focuses on their motivation for participating in this political process. Wall offers a historical analysis of Māori women’s political participation in parliament as a background to the research, and gives fairly comprehensive profiles of the interviewees. The transcribed interviews are included in their (edited) entirety. She concludes that the over-riding principle amongst the interviewees is not the role they perform as MPs, but rather their identification as Māori within their electorate as a voice of the people they represent. The work is based on a kaupapa Māori framework, and is presented in a unique way – that which is consistent with the protocol that is used on the author’s marae. An interesting (but brief) journal article which supports the findings in this thesis as well as contrasts it with another indigenous group published in 2003 is ‘The Participation of Aboriginal Women in Canadian Electoral Democracy’ by Manon Tremblay (Electoral Insight, 5 (3):34-8).
Ward, A., 1973. A Show of Justice: Racial ‘Amalgamation’ in Nineteenth Century
The purpose of this book, and Ward’s PhD thesis it was based upon, is to examine Māori – Pākehā relations in the nineteenth century. Included in this scholarly work are discussions on the Māori franchise and early participation in the New Zealand Parliament and the Māori Parliament – Kotahitanga. Due to this publication based partly on the surviving records of the old Native Department up to 1895, the fine points that Ward is able to give, and opinions of certain influential people associated these topics, makes the book a very interesting and incredibly detailed read. The index is very helpful and easily guides the reader to information concerning early Māori voting patterns, the Māori Representation Act 1867 and Māori responses to it, and Māori participation on the general roll. Ward admits that early Māori elections are very hard to analyse because the voting data is incomplete. However he has managed to identify some of the more clear voting patterns in the four Māori seats through gathering information from newspaper reports and comments by officials. Ward is a historian, writer and an Emeritus Professor at the
Ward, A. and J. Hayward, 1999. Tino Rangatiratanga: Māori in the Political and Administrative System. In P. Havemann (ed.) Indigenous People’s Rights in
Based on the National Overview report for the Waitangi Tribunal, this chapter concentrates on one aspect of tino rangatiratanga – Māori self-determination in the political and administrative system. The authors look at early Māori initiatives of the King movement, the separate Māori parliament, and Māori councils and committees. A comprehensive analysis of Māori representation in Parliament up until 1893 is made. They explain how Māori appreciated the importance of participating in this level of government and is illustrated through the mounting competition for the four Māori seats. Ward, a historian, and
Waymouth, L., 2002. Parliamentary Representation for Maori: Debate and Ideology in Te Wananga and Te Waka Maori o Niu Tirani, 1874-8. In J. Curnow,
Few books have focussed on the wealth of information contained within Māori newspapers, making this chapter which focuses on early Māori participation in
Yang, E., 2005. An Inquiry into Māori Representation in District Health Boards and Local Government. Unpublished LLB(Hons),
This dissertation questions the necessity of the measure to create Māori wards and constituencies in local authorities, and whether they are consistent with human rights law. The history of the Māori seats in Parliament is briefly outlined, and in more detail the right to vote is examined in terms of minority rights, Māori rights to self-determination, and under the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. The author concludes that the issue of Māori representation comes down to the practicalities of politics, that is, what will the consensus be on the appropriate forms for giving effect to Māori rights? Yang believes that