Introduction

The Electoral Commission commissioned Helena Cook to compile this annotated bibliography of publicly accessible material that discusses the change to MMP and its consequences.

The bibliography is provided on this page as a Word document of the full annotated bibliography and an Endnote library of the complete references without the annotations, under downloads at right.

If you have any suggestions of other works that could be considered for inclusion in this bibliography then please send full reference details to helena@elections.govt.nz.  You do not need to provide an annotation.

When making use of this bibliography please acknowledge the compiler (Helena Cook) and its provision by the Electoral Commission on the Elections New Zealand website, www.elections.org.nz.

Armstrong - Brechtel

Armstrong D., 1997. True Colours: On the road to New Zealand’s First MMP Government Auckland: David Bateman Ltd

A political commentary of the first MMP election in 1996, this is an amusing look at politics through the eyes of a TV comedy writer and “self confessed political junkie”.

Dave Armstrong follows the election campaign around the country for five weeks and provides notes on what he experiences. While certainly light-hearted and an easy read, Armstrong still provides a fascinating look into how campaigns are conducted as he talks to politicians and the man on the street. The end of the book focuses on the formation of the government after the election and he encourages the notion of personal involvement with politics. He concludes that “MMP is a system that favours political parties. If people don’t join them and change them, MMP will be as gerrymandered, manipulated and abused as FPP was.”

Barker F. and E. McLeay, 2000. How Much Change? An Analysis of the Initial Impact of Proportional Representation on the New Zealand Parliamentary Party System in Party Politics Vol. 6 (2), pp. 131-154

This article is also based on research done by the New Zealand Political Change Project. Elizabeth McLeay and former research assistant Fiona Barker discuss the impact of MMP on parties, parliamentary cohesion, the power relationships between parties and government and issue dimensions. They then review the impact of PR on New Zealand and find that there has been a rise in the number of political parties, that single-party majority governments are now less likely and that the two major parties will continue to make up the majority of New Zealand’s future governments, remaining divided by socio-economic differences. The authors also note the continuity of certain aspects of political life, such as the adherence to the Westminster adversarial, majoritarianism traditions. The change to the electoral system does not necessary indicate a change to the culture of parliament, and this in itself will affect the impact of MMP on New Zealand.

Barker F., J. Boston, S. Levine, E. McLeay and N.S Roberts, 2001. An Initial Assessment of the Consequences of MMP in New Zealand in M. Soberg Shugart and M. P. Wattenberg (eds.) Mixed-Member Electoral Systems: The Best of Both Worlds? Oxford: Oxford University Press

This paper is based on research done by the New Zealand Political Change Project, a group of political scientists at Victoria University. It provides an initial assessment of the impact of MMP in New Zealand during the first parliamentary term, paying particular attention to how reality compares to the criteria set out by the Royal Commission in 1986. Among the issues explored by the authors are political parties and the party system, political recruitment, parliament, government transition and durability and the question of whether electoral reforms were in fact met. The article concludes that New Zealand has undergone a period of great change and sometimes disappointment with its new electoral system but that parties and politicians are learning new strategies to cope with and succeed under an MMP system.

Boston J., 1994. The future of cabinet government in New Zealand: the implications of MMP for the formation, organization and operations of the cabinet Graduate School of Business and Government Management, Research Publications Series 3/94, Victoria University of Wellington

Written in 1994, this article by political scientist Jonathon Boston considers the implications of MMP on the formation, organizations and operations of the Cabinet in New Zealand. Boston explores some of the literature on coalition government and outlines likely forms of government under MMP, as well as examining the dynamics of cabinet government, such as the selection of Prime Minister, the size and operation of cabinet and allocation of portfolios. He rounds off his summary by looking at the implications of coalition government for collective and individual ministerial responsibility. Boston notes that the impact of MMP is likely to be greater under a two party system than with multi-parties. He suggests that with MMP New Zealand could expect to have a number of minority governments, with coalitions being the most common form of government. He believes extremist parties will find it difficult to gain representation due to the 5 % threshold and notes that there will be greater change in the policy making process under a coalition government than under a single party government.

Boston J., 1997. Learning to Govern Under Proportional Representation: Perspectives from Europe in Public Sector Vol. 20 (4) pp. 2-7

In this article, New Zealand political scientist Jonathon Boston looks at proportional representative systems of government in four European countries: Ireland, Denmark, Norway and Sweden, comparing these to New Zealand’s MMP system. This article analyses his findings and focuses on two topics: government formation and coalition management. This work would later form part of his book, Governing under Proportional Representation: Lessons from Europe, included below. Boston found that comparatively, the two month time period to establish New Zealand’s first MMP government was rare and that lengthy parallel negotiations such as New Zealand First took part in were not used nor supported in Europe. He concludes that each country has developed their own way of managing the complex relationships that emerge through proportional representation and that there is ‘no single correct approach to forming governments or managing inter-party relations.’

Boston J., 1998 Governing Under Proportional Representation: Lessons From Europe. Wellington: Institute of Policy Studies.

The purpose of this study by political scientist Jonathon Boston is to examine how governing under MMP might be enhanced by studying other comparable parliamentary democracies such as Ireland, Denmark, Norway and Sweden.

Boston discusses the mixed results that MMP has brought to New Zealand – on the one hand, parliament is more diverse and disproportionality has been reduced, but on the other, it has created political turbulence and inter-party conflict and public distrust of politicians has increased. He then examines various constitutional reforms which could improve the quality of political system in New Zealand, with examples from the democracies mentioned above, all of which are similar in size and are advanced welfare states without deep religious and linguistic differences, like New Zealand. Boston concludes that MMP does not need to be replaced; instead we must learn to conduct politics in “an intelligent and constructive manner within the parameters of a proportional system.” This is an extensive study and Boston has obviously spent a great deal of time researching the European examples.

Boston J., 1999. Enhancing Political Certainty and Government Durability under MMP: The Constitutional Options in Governing under MMP: The Constitutional and Policy Challenges IPS Policy Paper (1) pp. 1-14

Boston begins by discussing some of the positive and negative consequences of MMP in New Zealand. The positives include greater representation in parliament and greater fairness between parties in terms of the relationship between votes and seats, while the negatives include greater political turbulence and uncertainty as well as a significant decline in government durability. Between 1990 and 1998, Boston counts ten different governments and points out that such rapid change runs the risk of reducing policy effectiveness and increasing public disenchantment. He suggests three possible solutions for this instability: a change of electoral system, to ride out the current problems and hope they are transitional or to retain the benefits of MMP and minimise political instability by altering the rules within which politics is conducted. He discusses the impact of different constitutional arrangements on political outcomes, outlines key features and weaknesses of existing constitutional arrangements and summarises reforms which could be introduced. Overall a very interesting and informative read, as Boston challenges and debates the MMP system.

Boston J., 2000. Christian Political Parties and MMP in R. Ahdar and J. Stenhouse (eds.) God and Government: The New Zealand Experience Dunedin: University of Otago Press

This chapter explores Christian parties in Europe and their participation in government, as well as discussing the development of political parties in New Zealand and their potential under the MMP system. Boston, a professor of political science, notes that there are only a handful of books that discuss Christian political parties, which makes his study very interesting to the New Zealand case. He explores the coalition of the Christian Heritage Party and the Christian Democrats for the 1996 election, but observes that they failed to cross the 5% threshold. Boston suggests that reasons behind this include lack of resources, a crowded marketplace and a lack of tradition in NZ for religiously-orientated parties. He posits that parties would need to have a wide appeal; appearing moderate and having a broad agenda to be successful. An interesting and original read, especially the European comparisons.

Boston J., S. Levine, E. McLeay and N.S. Roberts., 1996. The Political Culture of Senior Public Servants: Expectations and beliefs about MMP in Public Sector Vol. 19 (2) pp. 12-16

This paper is the result of a survey conducted in late 1995 by members of the Political Change Group into the expectations of senior public servants and other decision makers and opinion leaders on the impact of MMP on New Zealand. The article focuses on three aspects: the future make up of governments under MMP, the role of public servants and how the policy process may change, and attitudes towards MMP and future constitutional changes. Their results were that nearly 60% of public servants expected a coalition majority government after the first MMP election while 84% of public servants thought that non-departmental policy advisors would have a greater role in the policy process. The authors noted that the views of senior public servants showed a consistent preference for a stable policy environment and some anxiety that their future role might change.

Boston J., S. Levine, E. McLeay and N.S. Roberts, 1996. Why Did New Zealand adopt German-style Proportional Representation? in Representation Vol. 33 (4), pp. 134-140

This article provides a brief overview of the introduction of MMP into New Zealand and why New Zealand chose the German model of proportional representation for their electoral system. The article explains what MMP is, discusses the ‘three stages’ of changing the electoral system: the Royal Commission and its findings, and the public referendums in 1992 and 1993, and concludes with the immediate consequences of adopting MMP. The German model of MMP is discussed, with reference to its “impressive record of political stability and economic growth since the end of the Second World War.” It is noted however, that the two countries do have their differences: Germany is a federal system, while New Zealand is not and while New Zealand has a unicameral parliament, Germany has a bicameral legislature. The authors note that New Zealand has experienced four different types of government between 1993 and 1995: single-party majority, coalition majority, single-party minority and coalition minority. They argue that this was probably useful for New Zealand as it taught the public and the government that majority coalitions are not the only alternative to the Westminster single-party majority governments that New Zealand was used too. They call MMP a “steep learning curve” for New Zealand.

Boston J., S. Levine, E. McLeay and N.S. Roberts (eds.) 1996. New Zealand Under MMP: A New Politics? Auckland: Auckland University Press with Bridget Williams Books.

This book, edited by four noted New Zealand political scientists, examines the changes already brought about by MMP and assesses its likely long term impact on New Zealand’s political system. It covers New Zealand’s changing identity, the new electoral system and the changing party system, and examines MMP in relation to parliament, cabinet, policy making and public service. An interesting addition is the chapter on the expected effects of MMP; the data from a survey taken in late 1995 of various groups of people including politicians, business leaders, Maori and pressure groups. Questions and subjects of the survey included expectations about the composition of the first MMP government, the impact on the executive and parliament and the probable effect on other participants in the political system. Although only suspected results and outcomes, it nevertheless provides interesting statistics; 56% of the respondents believed that MMP would “enhance the democratic process” with majorities believing that more women and Maori would be elected, that multi-party majorities would become the norm, and that interest groups would have a greater role in the policy making process. The authors conclude that voter disenchantment with the political process had led to a desire for electoral reform and that “MMP was designed to persuade New Zealander’s that participation at the ballot box was a meaningful and social act.”

Boston J., S. Levine, E. McLeay and N.S. Roberts., 1997. Experimenting with Coalition Government: Preparing to Manage Under Proportional Representation in New Zealand in Journal of Commonwealth & Comparative Politics, Vol.35 (3) pp.108-126

In this work, Boston, Levine, McLeay and Roberts examine coalitions in New Zealand during the lead up to MMP. The first of these coalitions took place in September 1994 between the National Party and the Right of Centre Party, which lasted almost a year. The second was between National and United New Zealand Party and lasted from February 1996 to the election in October of the same year. Both coalitions were as small as possible and as ideologically similar as possible. The article looks at the political and institutional context for coalition building and examines both in depth. It concludes that both coalitions gave greater benefits to National rather than the smaller party, neither of which did well in the first MMP election. The authors argue that the coalitions were useful for educating parties and politicians about the coming PR era as they had to negotiate with other parties and learn how to craft policy within a coalition government. They also note that in the first coalition under MMP, that of National and New Zealand First, the latter made sure it gained substantial representation in the executive as well as the drawing up a detailed coalition agreement. However, this coalition, like the others, gained only the bare parliamentary majority with 61 of 120 MPs.

Boston J., S. Levine, E. McLeay and N.S. Roberts (eds.) 1997. From Campaign to Coalition: the 1996 MMP election. Palmerston North: Dunmore Press Ltd

This comprehensive study of the 1996 election, the first under MMP, was written by the Political Change Group, a group of political scientists from Victoria University, Wellington. This book covers the media campaigns of each party, their manifestos and policies, candidates and their campaigns, women, Maori and minorities and the results of the election. Of note is the chapter “Surveying the Snark” by Levine and Roberts which focuses on voter behaviour in the 96 election: how did they vote and why? This is particularly interesting following the advent of MMP, as it investigates whether voter behaviour has changed or remained the same. The authors note it appears that “a new electoral system has been imposed on an already existing set of political habits and orientations” and that signs such as party loyalty, ongoing regard for leaders of the two main parties and maintenance of high interest in party politics remain, despite the introduction of MMP. The chapter on “Forming the first MMP Government” by Boston and McLeay is also worth note, as it provides a good overview of the position of core parties after the election and is useful as a practical demonstration of how coalitions are formed under the MMP system.

Boston, J. S. Levine, E. McLeay, N. S Roberts, and H. Schmidt, 1998. The Impact of Electoral Reform on the Public Service: The New Zealand Case in Australian Journal of Public Administration, Vol. 57 (3) pp. 64-78

This article explores the impact of electoral reform on the public service in New Zealand. It summarises the public sector reforms during the 1980s and looks at the preparations made by the public service for the advent of MMP. It also outlines the concerns and expectations about the likely consequences of the new electoral system on the bureaucracy and examines the extent to which the public service has been affected by electoral reform. Written in 1998, this work covers similar themes to other works referenced here (see Hunn 1996, James 1997, Shaw 1999 and the report of the State Services Commission in 1995), and this is noted in the work. The analysis presented in this article is based on interviews conducted in 1997 with ministers, senior public servants, ministerial advisers and parliamentary officials. The authors conclude that the impact of MMP on the public service has been “relatively slight” but that there is potential for future change. They also note that ‘the non-partisan character of the public service has been protected, and possibly even strengthened, over recent years’.

Brechtel T. and A. Kaiser, 1999. Party System and Coalition Formation in Post-Reform New Zealand in Political Science, Vol. 51 (1), Wellington: Publishing Solutions Ltd, pp. 3-26

In this study of the political party system of New Zealand after the advent of MMP, Brechtel and Kaiser, whose research interests include policy analysis, empirical democratic theory and coalition theory, come to the conclusion that electoral reform has led to many changes in New Zealand politics. Although it has changed from a two party to a multi-party system, the bi-polar competition structure and the adversarial nature of politics still prevail, despite the hopes that MMP would bring about a less aggressive, confrontational and more cooperative style of politics. Bi-polar competition is now formed on alliances developed from left-right positions on the political spectrum, rather than between the two ‘great’ parties. The authors argue that the presence or lack of a centre party is the crucial variable which decides if the current bipolar competition remains. Of interest is the use of a survey of political scientists in New Zealand, using answers to classify New Zealand political parties as either ‘left’ or ‘right’ on the political spectrum, and the examination of the National/NZF coalition of 1996.

Carpinter - Hunt

Carpinter P., 1993. MMP and Coalitions – Possible Issues in the New Zealand Context in Public Sector Vol. 16 (1) pp. 5-8

Witten prior to the 1993 referendum, this article addresses some of the issues likely to emerge if MMP is adopted in New Zealand. At the time of writing Carpinter was the Assistant Commissioner at the State Services Commission, although it is stated that this article does not represent their views. Carpinter discusses the present electoral system, the changes in the ten years prior to the public service and future changes that MMP may bring. He briefly examines Germany as a comparative model, because of its history of MMP government, although he notes the differences between the two countries: Germany is a Federal state and is a civil law, not a common law jurisdiction. In conclusion, Carpinter suggests that MMP may result in three things - more open competition for policy advice, the settings of programmes and coalition agreements may be reached without help from the public service and the development of a wider and different political circle.

Catt H., P. Harris and N.S Roberts, 1992, Voters Choice: Electoral Change in New Zealand, Palmerston North: Dunmore Press Ltd

Produced prior to the 1992 referendum, this book was produced by three eminent New Zealand lecturers in political science to explain to the public the options facing them on 19 September. It discusses the First Past the Post (FPP) system and the subsequent options: Supplementary Member, Single Transferable Vote, Mixed Member Proportional, and Preferential Voting. It is a concise, easy to read analysis of the options for voting, which provides “the principles behind the voting system” without becoming too complex. Notable was the Opinions section, where prominent New Zealander’s were asked to give their thoughts on electoral reform. While most supported a change, citing the importance of greater representation of women and Maori, an increase in minority rights and the break-up of power structures as major factors, the Right Hon Helen Clark as Leader of the Opposition argued strongly against MMP claiming it would increase public disillusionment with the political process, weaken electoral representation and that it was unfair to the major parties as it gives smaller parties power. The book also touches on the question of whether New Zealand needs a senate and the use of referenda.

Church S. and E. McLeay, 2003. The Parliamentary Review of MMP in New Zealand in Representation, Vol. 39(4) pp.245-254

This article is an analysis of the New Zealand parliamentary review of MMP, which discusses the main features of the review and the lack of recommendations from the committee. In 2000 the MMP Review Committee was set up to examine changes to the MMP system, the numbers of MPs in parliament, the effects of MMP on the representation of women, Maori and of ethnic minorities and any other matters relating to the electoral system. The committee was made up of ten members from all the political parties excepting New Zealand First, and operated on the basis of unanimity instead of majority rules to avoid bloc voting. In 2001 the committee reported back, with the only unanimous votes being those in favour of the status quo. No changes to MMP were initiated. Church and McLeay, members of the New Zealand Political Change Project, believe that the adoption of the unanimity rule closed down avenues for debate among the committee, leading to a failure to agree on any changes. Parties merely affirmed their own individual stances, rather than debate alternatives. Since the review, suggestions of changes or reviews to the MMP system have failed to carry through. The authors suggest that new electoral systems take time to become established and that it had been too soon to discuss changes to the MMP system.

Denemark D., 2001. Choosing MMP in New Zealand: Explaining the 1993 Electoral Reform in M. Soberg Shugart and M. P. Wattenberg (eds.) Mixed-Member Electoral Systems: The Best of Both Worlds? Oxford: Oxford University Press

Currently teaching at the University of Western Australia, political scientist David Denemark discusses electoral reform in New Zealand and the change from a strongly Westminster style of government to a mixed member proportional system. Denemark examines this change closely, focusing on minority party and group under-representation. He also looks at the Royal Commissions enquiries, the referendums in 1992 and 1993, and the advantages and disadvantages of MMP. Denemark’s interest in electoral behaviour in Anglo-American democracies is reflected in his work, and his some of his terms may be confusing for a reader with little knowledge of electoral systems. However, an interesting and clearly laid out article with an appendix of a sketch of the MMP system in New Zealand.

Denemark D., 2003. Electoral Change, Inertia and Campaigns in New Zealand: The First Modern FPP Campaign in 1987 and the First MMP Campaign in 1996 in Party Politics Vol. 9 (5) pp. 601-618

In this paper, Denemark reviews two electoral campaigns in New Zealand, the “first modern FPP campaign” of 1987 and the first MMP election in 1996. He examines the concept of political inertia, or resistance to change, and the learning and adaptation that the country underwent during each of these campaigns. Using data from interviews of people responsible for parties’ campaigns in 1987 and 1996, Denemark examines whether new campaign strategies and logic were adopted to cope with the new circumstances, and finds that although electoral change does encourage change in campaigning, there are a variety of constraints that can prevent this. Denemark provides research on campaigning in New Zealand under the MMP system, an area in which additional literature is scarce.

Dunne P., 1997. Learning to Govern Under Proportional Representation: New Zealand’s Experience to Date in Public Sector Vol. 20 (4) pp. 8-10

This article follows on from Jonathon Boston’s paper, Governing Under Proportional Representation: Lessons From Europe. Peter Dunne writes about the New Zealand experience with MMP from the perspective of being a junior partner in the first coalition government since the 1930’s and the leader of a potential future coalition party. Dunne discusses how and when coalition partners should be identified and the nature of coalition agreements and their working relationships. He concludes that the future of New Zealand coalition agreements is likely to be that they are based on commonality of interests rather than the need for numbers and the creation of an ‘effective system of political management that recognises that … each of the partners has to be seen to be making a clear and effective contribution to its goals.’

Easton B., 1999. The Whimpering of the State: Policy after MMP Auckland: Auckland University Press

A follow on from his book “The Commercialization of New Zealand”, this book examines the first three years of MMP in New Zealand with a focus on policy. The authors target audience is described as university politics students, readers of New Zealand politics, public servants and politicians. Easton uses case studies of health, education, science, arts and infrastructure policies to explore New Zealand since the 1996 election. Two chapters of particular interest are ‘Policy Making under MMP’ and ‘The Coming of MMP’. The former considers the theory of how different electoral systems affect the policy process and outcomes, while the later explores the history of MMP in New Zealand. Heavily focused on specific policy examples.

Eichbaum C. and R. Shaw, 2006. Enemies or Ally? Senior Officials perceptions of Ministerial Advisers before and after MMP in Political Science Vol. 58 (1) pp. 3-22

This article is the result of research on the attitude of senior public servants towards ministerial advisors in New Zealand Cabinet Ministers offices. It compares these attitudes before and after the advent of MMP in New Zealand. Eichbaum and Shaw conducted a large scale interview of senior officials who have had contact with ministerial advisors involved in policy work, and gathered results from 188 respondents from 20 government departments and the New Zealand Police. They found that association between the two groups is frequent and strengthening, with its peak strength during periods of minority government. Public servants were generally of the view that advisors undertake a range of roles and add value to the policy process in an MMP environment. The role of advisors is seen as multi-faceted as it incorporates ‘procedural and substantive dimensions’. The next phase of their research involves qualitative and quantitative data from ministers and their advisors, which will develop a deeper understanding of the relationship between public servants and ministerial advisors.

Electoral Referendum Panel., 1993. Referendum ’93: Media Handbook. Wellington.

This handbook for the media provides background and reference to the 1993 referendum and its options and issues. Its stated goal was to ‘provide members of the media with factual and impartial information to assist them in informing the public about the referendum.” Consequently, it provides a very clear, easy to read overview on the issues surrounding the referendum, by comparing FPP and MMP. This comparison includes explaining the choices facing electors, the St-Laguë Formula, forming a government and a questions and answers section. A brief guide useful for overviews and easy for everyone to understand, even those with no prior knowledge of the issues.

Electoral Commission., 1996. Everything you need to know about voting under MMP: New Zealand’s electoral system. Wellington: GP Publications.

This report by the Electoral Commission is a ‘general account of New Zealand’s electoral system which not only describes MMP but covers the constitutional context within which MMP will operate and the administration of the electoral system.”

This covers popular democracy, constitutional monarchy, electoral law and duties of list MPs among other things. It provides four appendices on how MMP was adopted in New Zealand, how electorate boundaries are drawn, the St-Laguë Formula and milestones in the history of New Zealand’s electoral system. A very easy read, with clearly divided chapters and headed paragraphs. The chapter on New Zealand electoral law and administration provides an interesting description of the roles of the chief electoral officer and the electoral commission.

Engelbrecht C. 1999. Did MMP make a difference? : a study of the representative roles that new MPs tended to fulfil in 1997. Research paper, Master of Public Policy. Wellington: University of Victoria.

A paper written for Masters in public policy, Engelbrecht looks at the impact of the change to MMP on the representative roles that New Zealand MPs fulfilled during 1997. She tests the hypothesis that new electorate MPs will tend to represent their electorates, while new list MPs will represent their respective parties. She analyses maiden speeches, oral questions asked and interviews with former electorate MPs who were now list MPs since the 96 election. Engelbrecht pays special attention to differing types of representation such as delegate roles, trustee role and special interest role. The results of her study found that the majority of new MPs tended to fill the politico role, acting for as a representative for a combination of party, electorate, group and ‘the nation’, while the majority of longer serving MPs tended to fill a partisan role, acting for their party first and foremost. This was a very interesting and informative read that was clear and concise.

Fitzsimons E. 2000. MMP : a fair and representative electoral system? : annotated bibliography. Research paper for MLIS. Wellington: University of Victoria.

This is an annotated bibliography on MMP written by a Masters student in 2000. Fitzsimons has collected material on issues associated with the representational aspects of MMP in New Zealand, as well as looking at material concerning other countries with a similar electoral system and how they accommodate these issues.

Her stated aim is to provide MPs and parliamentary staff with material to prepare themselves for the forthcoming review of MMP (2000-2001). She focuses on Germany as a comparative study because of the similarities between New Zealand and German electoral systems. Because it was written in 2000, much of the recent material is absent, but it is useful for those who need resources on MMP, particularly in regard to comparative studies.

Hardie Boyes M., 1996. The Role of the Governor-General under MMP in Public Sector Vol. 19 (2) pp. 2-7

Sir Hardie Boyes, former Governor General of New Zealand, discusses the role of the Governor General and the evolving nature of the role in an MMP environment. He discusses elections under MMP and the discussions held prior to the 1996 election abut how to form a government and the Governor General’s role in this situation. He stresses the need for “clear and public evidence” that a political agreement has been reached when forming a new government, as it was necessary to ensure public confidence and also so that the Governor General could appoint a new Prime Minister. If a decision could not be reached between the parties, then the Governor General may act as an instigator between the two parties; however, he notes that the formation of government is a political decision and must be arrived at by politicians.

Hardie Boyes M., 1999. The Constitutional Challenges of MMP: A Magical Demystification Tour in Governing under MMP: The Constitutional and Policy Challenges IPS Policy Paper (1) pp. 27-31

In this article, the former Governor General of New Zealand explains the roles of politicians and the Governor General during a mid-term political crisis. He uses the examples of the change in Prime Minister in 1997 and the transition from majority coalition government to minority coalition government in August 1998. The author discusses each of these events in terms of the political facts that were significant to him, and the role he played in appointing Jenny Shipley as Prime Minister and in dismissing Winston Peters. He stresses the importance of the confidence of the House and describes it as “fundamental to the democratic process” as well as playing a large part in determining the actions of the Governor General. He also notes its importance in legitimizing the new minority government in 1998. An interesting first hand account of the role of the Governor General during the political uncertainty of the first MMP years.

Hawke G.R (ed) 1993. Changing Politics? The Electoral Referendum 1993. Wellington: Institute of Policy Studies

This collection of essays was published by the Institute of Policy Studies which provides an independent, detached study of public policy issues. Written by political scientists and members of the public service prior to the 1993 electoral referendum, the articles discuss the division of electoral districts under MMP, legislative change, MMP and coalitions and New Zealand political parties in the 90’s. Of interest is Richard Mulgan’s article on the possible effects of MMP on the political behaviour of the public. Mulgan believes that MMP offers the potential for a wider range of policy options and increased public involvement, but notes that New Zealand would have to adjust their political conditions associated with multi-party parliaments and coalition governments. He also believes that MMP would not restore the political confidence that existed before 1984.

Hunn D., 1996. Constitutional Implications of MMP for the Public Service in Public Sector Vol. 19 (2) pp. 8-11

At the time of writing, Hunn was the State Services Commissioner of New Zealand, and this article is a progress report on what the State Services Commission was doing to prepare the public service for the move to MMP. Hunn examines how the public service operates in other PR systems, the constitutional and political context within which the public service in New Zealand operates and reviews the principles and practices that underpin the public service. He notes what will not change under MMP: the constitutional framework will remain the same, New Zealand will still be a parliamentary democracy, and the public service will work for Ministers, not parties or parliament. The change will be less about what the public service does, but rather how they do it. Hunn concludes that the role of the public service is to support the transition to MMP effectively and professionally and to learn to work successfully in a new political context.

Hunt G., 1998. Why MMP Must Go. Auckland: Waddington Press Ltd.

Written by Graeme Hunt, a journalist for the National Business Review, this is a scathing attack on MMP. Hunt discusses the positions of National and Labour on MMP and the key figures that supported and opposed it. He believes that the results of the 1992 referendum were unfair as it was held in a “climate of anger over government welfare and labour reforms” and argues that key supporters of MMP were pushing their own personal crusades and agendas. He focuses heavily on the government formation after the 1996 election and blames MMP for playing a part in the ‘political ills’ of its first year. Hunt concludes that the solution is to restore single-party majority governments but with minor proportionality, to continue to reform parliament and to reduce the size of the executive. Hunt concludes that “MMP is a disgusting system of representation.” An interesting read for a very definite view of MMP.

Jackson - Sellens

Jackson K., and A. McRobie. 1998. New Zealand adopts proportional representation: accident? design? evolution? England: Ashgate Publishing.

This book seeks to place New Zealand’s change to PR in context, reviewing trends and consequences of MMP. It is based on files of Royal Commission on the Electoral System as well as interviews with MPs, officials, leaders of pressure groups and the Commissioners. Jackson, a political scientist and McRobie, a political commentator, explore early electoral experiments, the Royal Commission, the campaign for reform and the consequences and causes. Of interest is the chapter on the transition to MMP where the authors examine the Maori electoral option, legislative changes, candidate selection and forming the first MMP government. A weighty read packed full of information, this book provides a thorough examination of how and why New Zealand came to adopt MMP.

James C. 1997. MMP: Not What the Vanguard Intended in Public Sector Vol. 20 (4) pp.11-14

Political journalist Colin James looks at the change in New Zealand voter opinions regarding MMP, from initial and early support to a sense that MMP was not fulfilling the needs for which they had adopted it. James outlines the history of the adoption of MMP: the desire for an electoral system where the power of the major parties could be reined in and the problems that arose in the aftermath of the first MMP election. He argues that the New Zealand public supported an adversarial style of two-party politics and were disappointed the chaos and dealings that would eventually lead to the first MMP government. The backlash on MMP was a response to this. However, James notes that changes have already been made to New Zealand’s political landscape, such as the additional of smaller parties, and greater representation of ethnic minorities and women, and thus it was not ‘two-party politics as we knew it’. James does not seem to have an overly hopeful view of MMP or its benefits and argues that some of them, such as a more pluralistic parliament may have taken place under an FPP system. He concludes that we are heading back to two-party-dominated politics and that MMP may well get “dumped” in the process.

James C., 1997. Under New Sail: MMP and Public Servants. Wellington: Institute of Policy Studies

In this work, Colin James, political journalist and analyst, discusses the new reforms in the public sector with the advent of MMP. He examines strategy, the budget and accountability; public servants, parliament and the government and issues for public servants. James argues that the key changes since MMP are that a rule-based, hierarchical, administrative system has now been replaced by a contract-based system. He also notes that MMP is likely to change accountability lines, with more policy advice coming from outside the public service and greater attempts by lobby groups to push their agendas. Public servants may find problems in dealing with coalitions and James notes the importance of drawing the line between advising and political manoeuvring.

James C., and A. McRobie (eds.) 1993. Turning Point: The 1993 Election and Beyond, Wellington: Bridget Williams Books

This book is a study of the 1993 general election and the public referendum that resulted in a call for electoral change in New Zealand. The book is divided into sections, one of which is ‘Taking it to the People’, a reference to author Alan McRobies book of the same name, also noted here. In this section, there are three chapters of interest: A Question of Fairness, which details the history and lead up to electoral change in New Zealand; MMP – Going the German Way, and The Way it Might Be. The first two chapters mentioned are written by Alan McRobie, while the latter is by Colin James, and discusses the predicted impact of MMP in New Zealand. The middle chapter details voters’ options for the approaching 1993 referendum and what MMP would mean for New Zealand. It also includes information regarding Maori parliamentary representation, selection of candidates, formation of governments and the role and function of the Electoral Commission.

Johnston R. and C. Pattie. 1999. Constituency Campaign Intensity and Split Ticket Voting: New Zealand’s First Election under MMP 1996 in Political Science Vol. 51 (2), pp. 164-181

The authors, who research aspects of the geography of elections, have used this article to focus on New Zealand’s first MMP election in 1996, and the voters who had split their votes by giving their party vote to one party and their constituency vote to a candidate from another party. They found that during this election only 61% of electors voted a straight-ticket, i.e. given their vote to a candidate and their corresponding party. In this article, the authors seek to address two issues: firstly to see if there is any variability in the degree of split-ticket voting among the 65 electorates and if so was this related to differences in campaign intensity in these constituencies. Johnston and Pattie hypothesized that party spending influenced the split-ticket flows during the election and the results of their research reveal that this was correct – the more that each party spent on its candidates campaign in a constituency, the better that candidate was at retaining the loyalty of those who voted for their party and gaining converts from those who preferred other parties. They note that there was a very substantial variation of split-ticket voting across electorates and that local campaigning mattered, information that is useful for MPs hoping to gain support in the next election.

Johnston R. and C. Pattie. 2002. Campaigning and split-ticket voting in new

electoral systems: the first MMP elections in New Zealand, Scotland and Wales in Electoral Studies 21 (4), pp. 583–600

As in the previous work above, Johnston and Pattie discuss the issue of split-ticket voting with a focus on first time MMP elections in New Zealand (1996), Scotland and Wales (1999). The authors find that a large proportion of voters in each country voted a split-ticket, and this split-ticket voting was heavily influenced by the amount of campaign expenditure spent by each candidate in a constituency seat. They argue that voters are influenced by the information provided by the parties, in the form of mass media advertising and promotion material. They conclude that under an MMP system, voters will give both their votes to their preferred party unless convinced otherwise by information they receive. The more that a candidate campaigns for a constituency seat, the more likely they are to gain support form those voters who had given their lost vote to another party. This was tested by using the amount that each candidate spent as a measure of the intensity of the campaign and validated their hypothesis for the first MMP elections across all three countries. Their final conclusion was that in politics, as in many aspects of life, money counts in elections, because it is used to produce information employed to influence voter behaviour.

Karp J. 2006. Political knowledge about electoral rules: Comparing mixed member proportional systems in Germany and New Zealand in Electoral Studies Vol. 25 (4), pp. 714-730.

In this article, Jeffrey Karp, a political scientist, compares MMP systems in New Zealand and Germany, two of the few countries that have this electoral system. He uses survey data to investigate voter's political knowledge of the electoral system and their voting behaviour and finds that knowledge about the electoral system is similar in both countries, despite the fact that West Germany has had MMP since 1953, while New Zealand adopted the system in 1996. Karp concludes that it was likely that the education campaign run in New Zealand by the Electoral Commission was successful in increasing public knowledge about MMP. He does note that while some people may not fully understand the system, there is no evidence to suggest that misunderstanding of the primacy of the party list vote affects voting behaviour. Karp has written a great deal about voting and voter behaviour in New Zealand and this is an interesting comparative study, particularly to learn more about the average New Zealanders understanding of MMP.

Levine S., N. S Roberts and R. Salmond, 2007. A Wider View: MMP Ten Years On in S. Levine and N. S Roberts (eds.) Baubles of Office: The New Zealand General Election of 2005 Wellington: Victoria University Press.

A recent analysis of ten years of MMP in New Zealand, this chapter from a study of the 2005 election examines the expectations of and transition to MMP, life under the new electoral system and makes international comparisons with countries with similar mixed member systems: Germany, Italy and Japan. The authors note that MMP has caused declining proportionality and an increase of representation of women and Maori (which they attribute to both institutional change and the passage of time). They refute initial fears that MMP would cause the “tail to wag the dog” and observe that since 1999, Labour has dealt with small parties on an issue-by-issue basis, making it difficult for smaller parties to gain concessions for their supporters. The authors, all political scientists at Victoria University, believe that MMP has delivered on many of the things it was hoped for and has avoided the serious problems that were predicted. They note that it is too early to make a definitive judgement on MMP but conclude that “MMP in reality is closer to the vision of its supporters than to the fears of its opponents.” This article is an excellent read, and very useful as a current resource on MMP. The book is also worth reading as an analysis of the 2005 election in New Zealand.

Martin J., 1996. The Impact of MMP on Policy Development and Advice in Public Sector Vol. 19 (2) pp. 17-22

John Martin, a parliamentary historian and lecturer on public policy examines the potential for change of policy development in New Zealand under MMP. He addresses three key areas: accountability and responsibility of officials and minsters, whether the present configuration of departments and agencies assist or hinder good policy making, and the role of the post-MMP public service. He concludes that politicians, officials and commentators are “dangerously uncertain” about the location of responsibility under MMP but he believes that a professional public service must be more, not less, responsible for clear, sound policy advice.

McGee D., 2002. Parliamentarianism and MMP in Public Sector Vol. 25 (4) pp. 7-11

Written by David McGee, Clerk of the House, this article examines the principles of parliamentarianism in New Zealand and the affect that MMP has had on them. He sees the three most important features of this parliamentarianism as being that it is representative, responsible and procedural. He then examines each feature individually, and notes the impact that MMP has had on them. McGee finds that MMP has resulted in a more representative and diverse parliament, that it has focused attention on the formation and sustainment of governments and constrained them politically in ways that they had not experienced under FPP. He also finds that MMP has affected procedural decision-making by increasing the number of political groups who were interested in and now had a voice in making those decisions. McGee concludes that while Parliament is no more important under MMP, the change in electoral system has emphasised the difference between Parliament and Government and given Parliament a new found centrality.

McKeever F., 2005. MMP and the New Zealand Constitution: How the advent of a PR electoral system has altered the relationship between the legislative and executive and the executive branch of government. LLB (Hons.) research paper. Wellington: University of Victoria.

McKeever, a law student at Canterbury University, examines the impact of change in electoral system on the New Zealand constitution, with a focus on ways that MMP has acted as a check on the executive. She focuses on three ways that the constitution (which she defines as made up of the Constitutions Act 1986, important statues in common law and constitutional conventions) has been changed by MMP: there is a more representative and multifaceted legislative branch, prominent powers are kept in check and there are implications for the democratic nature of New Zealand government. She has some interesting work on select committee scrutiny and also on the role of cabinet, as well as examining the concept of individual ministerial responsibility, and if it has changed under MMP. She concludes that MMP has given greater power to smaller parties and the power to rein back the power of the executive is increased; with the legislative now has more scope to act as a check on its behaviour.

McLeay E., 2000. The New Parliament in J. Boston, S. Church, S. Levine, E. McLeay and N.S Roberts (eds.) Left Turn: The New Zealand General Election of 1999 Wellington: Victoria University Press.

Political scientist Elizabeth McLeay examines the new parliament post-1999 election. This was the second general election to be held under MMP and this study provides a useful look at the makeup of parliament under a system that is purported to increase representation for minority groups. McLeay notes that MMP ‘has the potential to bring higher levels of new MPs into parliament than FP but parties can suppress this by exploiting MMP’s capacity for dual candidacy’, for example, putting politicians in one or two relatively secure positions. She also acknowledges that while MMP has resulted in a greater number of female, Maori and Pacific Island MPs, party policies have an equally important role to play in candidate selection.

McLeay E., 2006. Leadership in Cabinet under MMP in R. Miller and M. Mintrom (eds.) Political Leadership in New Zealand. Auckland: Auckland University Press.

This chapter focuses on the formal and informal institutional structures within which New Zealand political leaders operate. A leaders personal characteristics are tested within those institutional parameters. McLeay, a political scientist, finds that there are many variables to changing or a reinvention of leadership style, not solely MMP. She discusses three aspects; the political resources available to the leader, the key players and policy networks and the “veto players” introduced by MMP – people or groups whose consent is necessary before change can be made, e.g. smaller parties. McLeay notes that MMP multiparty governments may have reduced the authority of the Prime Minister as they are often governing minority governments in an unstable period after an election. However, the change to MMP has meant the Prime Minister is now required to play an important part in ‘establishing public trust in the new process”, hence MMP itself has allowed Prime Ministers to demonstrate their skills.

A very interesting read on a subject not dealt with in many accounts of MMP in New Zealand.

McLeay E., J. Boston, S. Levine, and N.S. Roberts., 1996. Contradictions and compatibility: Electoral system change and the New Zealand political culture in New Zealand Studies, November, pp. 23-28

In this article, members of the Electoral Change Project examine electoral system change and the political culture in New Zealand. Among the issues covered are the degree of change that MMP will bring, public attitudes towards government and parties, political culture and constitutional change. Of note is the authors’ reflection that electoral system change is not merely a result of “a passive response to the perceived failings of leaders but rather an active response to events and ideas.” They note that there had been a constitutional shift towards ideas of limited government and protection of citizens’ rights, as well as verbal and policy cues from the government that encouraged individual responsibility. The feelings of distrust towards the government are therefore seen as a ‘response to a changing world’. The authors conclude that MMP is an electoral system that reflects the changing mood of New Zealand’s political culture.

McRobie A (ed.) 1993. Taking it to the People? The New Zealand Referendum Debate. Christchurch: Hazard Press.

Written after the 1992 referendum but prior to its follow-up in 1993, Alan McRobie has brought together a wide range of contributors, including politicians Rod Donald, Pete Hodgson and Peter Dunne, former and future Prime Minsters Sir Geoffrey Palmer and Helen Clark and political scientists Jack Vowles, Peter Aimer and Keith Jackson. This book seeks to answer the question “Were the 92 referendum issues and options really taken to the people and, if so, with what success?” The first part of the book deals with the anatomy of the referendum, including media, educating the public and issues and options. The second part deals with the referendum debate – the royal commissions report, the opinions of politicians, canvassing the issues and exploring the various options of electoral system such as FPP and MMP. Jim Tully’s study of the media and the referendum provides an insightful view into how the public were informed about electoral system options and the successes and failures of media campaigns. Following on from this, the chapter on editorial comments from papers in the major cities provides a ‘snapshot of the times’ which makes for interesting reading.

McRobie A., 1997. New Zealand’s First MMP Election in Agenda Vol. 4 (3) pp. 329-340

McRobie, an independent electoral consultant, examines New Zealand’s first election under MMP in 1996. He begins with a history of electoral change in New Zealand, referring to the findings of the Royal Commission, and the structure of MMP, before comparing the 1993 and 1996 elections. His findings are clearly tabled, including female representation and the ethnic composition of the first MMP parliament. McRobie concludes by evaluating the election and notes that it ‘substantially met its supporters’ expectations’, through the increase in representation of women, Maori and ethnic minorities, by being fairer to all political parties who now win seats proportionate to electoral support and preserving the direct link between MP and elector. A quick, easy to read article that provides an interesting look at New Zealand’s first MMP election.

Miller R., 2005. The Party System under Proportional Representation in Party Politics in New Zealand. Melbourne: Oxford University Press.

In this chapter, Miller, a political scientist from Auckland University, asks whether institutional change such as the move to MMP offers the most convincing explanation for the expansion of the party system in New Zealand. He compares institutional change to social structural and socio-psychological arguments to discuss the nature of the present party system.’ He discusses the growth of political parties since the advent of MMP and examines the various cleavages that can divide parties, using a list of ‘issue dimensions’ by American scholars Lijphart and Nagel, upon which numerical judgements can be made about party systems under MMP. Miller concludes that the new rules of MMP act as an incentive and a barrier to small parties and that New Zealand political parties are moving away from traditional social cleavages and towards personal attachments and ties. A very interesting study of the emergence and targets of political parties in New Zealand since MMP.

Nagel J. H., 1994. How many Parties will New Zealand have under MMP? in Political Science Vol. 46 (2) pp. 139-160

Written in 1994, political scientist Jack Nagel provides an analysis of how many political parties New Zealand would have after the advent of MMP. He predicts this by using three formulas, developed by Taagepera and Shugart, (predicting from electoral rules) Taagepera and Grofman, (predicting from social cleavages) and Ordeshook and Shvetsova (a combination of the two). He concludes that six is likely to be the upper limit of political parties in New Zealand after MMP. Nagel’s article is heavy on the statistics, so can be hard to follow if the reader is not that way inclined. Also includes the appendix “Why Parties = Issue+1”.

Palmer G. and M. Palmer., 1996. Brindled Power: New Zealand Government under MMP. Auckland: Oxford University Press.

Following on from his 1979 book Unbrindled Power, this work by lawyer and former Prime Minister Sir Geoffrey Palmer and his son Matthew, aims to “provide easily read outlines for the New Zealand citizen who wished to understand the system of New Zealand government on the threshold of MMP”. It looks at many aspects of New Zealand governance including elections and forming a government, executive government, parliament and restraints on government. Of interest is the section on future government, in which Palmer and Palmer assess the possibilities of MMP, and believe that it will result in more meaningful debate over government policy, increase the importance of select committees, and make the role of the Prime Minister and senior officials in coordinating ministers and officials and a coalition government more difficult. Palmer, a long time supporter of MMP argues that it will lead to further constitutional changes but also to greater debate, consensus and traditional dialogue.

Public Sector., 1994. Viewpoints on MMP in Public Sector Vol. 17 (1) pp. 2-9

This chapter comprises several articles on MMP in New Zealand. Written just after the 1993 referendum that saw MMP selected as the electoral system of choice, the authors examine various topics including implications, impacts, accountability and the quality of legislation. The authors include MPs of various parties, private citizens, academics and business people. Because of the time of publication, much of the ideas put forward are speculation, but it is an interesting look at some of the views of the day and to note what people believed would happen with the introduction of MMP.

Examples of this include an improvement in the quality of legislation, greater accountability of politicians, enhanced democracy and more effective select committees.

Report of the Royal Commission on the Electoral System., 1986. Towards a Better Democracy. Wellington: VR Ward, Government Printer.

The one that began it all, the Royal Commissions report was the advocate for MMP as a preferred electoral system for New Zealand. The Commission, chaired by Justice John Wallace, aimed to investigate whether change to the system was needed, and if so, what was needed. Among the various issues examined were Maori representation, the number of MPs and the term of parliament. It compares FPP and STV, MMP, SM and plurality voting systems and assesses them in terms of how they would affect New Zealand governance and representation and finds MMP as its preferred option. The committee claimed that MMP was ‘fairer to supporters of political parties and likely to provide more effective representation of Maori and other minority and special interest groups. It is likely to provide a more effective parliament and also has advantages in terms of voter participation and legitimacy”. This work is a must read for anyone who is interested in MMP in New Zealand, and includes two interesting appendices on the history of electoral law in New Zealand and the history of Maori representation.

Sellens P. 1998. The impact of MMP on lobbying in New Zealand. Research paper, Master of Public Policy. Wellington: University of Victoria.

Sellens, a Masters student at Victoria, examines how lobbyists have responded to MMP. She discusses opportunities for lobby groups such as through select committees, or one on one with MPs and hypothesises that if political power is widely disbursed among parties, lobbyists will have to target more and more differing groups. A large focus of her paper is interviews with thirteen individuals from a cross section of organisations that lobby the government, focusing on whom and why they lobby and the changes MMP has brought to their lobbying strategies. Sellens concludes that activities have not changed dramatically with the advent of MMP, although the increase in MPs had meant a wider range of people to lobby. She notes that her research was difficult, as it was based on a time frame of a three year transition parliament and 18 months of an MMP government. No real surprises in her research, but an interesting and easy read.

Shaw - Witcombe

Shaw R., 1998. State Sector Reform and MMP: At the Interface in Political Science Vol.49 (2) pp. 173-197

Shaw examines the dual processes of state sector and electoral reform in New Zealand and how the convergence of these two areas has resulted in issues for New Zealand. In particular, Shaw focuses on the preposition that the prevalence of non-single party majority governments may threaten the traditionally ‘politically neutral’ stance adopted by public servants and the capacity of governments to create and implement policy. Shaw discusses in detail the reform of the public sector and the change of the electoral system to MMP, and notes that the areas in which there is likely to be ‘substantive and immediate issues’ is at the interface between public servants and politicians. He groups these issues into one or another of these headings: the potential politicization of the public service and/or the coordination of policy process, again which he discusses at some length. Shaw concludes that with time and experience, multi-party governments should have gained the mechanisms to resolve conflict open inter-party communication. He also notes that cross-party cooperation should lead to “relatively durable” policy settings under MMP and that an ‘informed voter public’ would seek to have its references reflected in the legislative and executive branches of government.

Shaw R., 1999. Rules or Discretion? Officials and Government Formation under MMP in Political Science, Vol. 51 (1), Wellington: Publishing Solutions Ltd, pp. 32-57

Shaw, a lecturer in the School of Social work and Social Policy at Massey University, discusses the role of New Zealand officials in the public sector and coalition negotiators during the time of caretaker governments and the role of these officials in the formation of MMP. Shaw references The Impact of Electoral Reform on the Public Service: The New Zealand Case by Boston, Levine, McLeay, Roberts, and Schmidt and Under New Sail: MMP and Public Servants by Colin James as supplementary literature on MMP and public policy. Shaw discusses the public service preparations for MMP, the conventions for government formation pre-1996, the relationship between officials and coalition negotiators after the 1996 election and the new procedures that were established for the public service to operate under MMP. He then reflects how these procedures might be modified for future elections. Shaw notes that senior public service officials sought changes to contact between themselves and politicians which included more direct contact between the two groups and access to information such as briefings to incoming Ministers and the timing of their release. Shaw feels that these changes ‘do not signify a complete recasting of the role of the public servant during periods of government formation’; however they confirm new aspects of the role, such as providing analysis and advice to a range of parties and politicians.

Shaw R., 2004, Electoral Law Reform and the Work of the New Zealand Parliament in Australasian Parliamentary Review, Vol. 19 (1) pp.18-31

This is a study of electoral reform and the impact it has on the day-to-day work of parliament in New Zealand, examining unicameral legislature between 1984-2002. Written in 2004, Shaw, a Senior lecturer at Massey University, discusses the trends of parliament sittings, the amount of legislature introduced in parliament, and where it originated, and the effect of MMP on parliaments committees and executive. Shaw concludes that because of the short time that MMP has been in place in New Zealand, it is not wise to draw fixed conclusions on the effect it had had on the daily work of parliament, however, he does believe that parliament has gained ‘a measure’ of independence from the executive, as the House builds its capacity to promote non-government policy and scrutinises the current government. Shaw does point out that change to parliaments activities may also be caused by institutional changes, such as changes to Standing Orders and the reduction of MPs in the executive. He concludes that “parliament remains sovereign, but providing it maintains the confidence of the House, it is the government of the day which rules.”

Shaw R., and C. Eichbaum. 2005. MMP and the policy process in Public policy in New Zealand: institutions, processes and outcomes. Auckland: Pearson Education.

This book is aimed at undergraduate students studying politics or social/public policy but would also appeal to anyone with a general interest in New Zealand politics. This chapter aims to explore the relationship between electoral systems and the policy process. It is very easy to read with clear headings and tables, as well as a summary of key points, key terms and concepts and study questions. The chapter explains various options for a government e.g. single party majority or coalition minority governments, and MMP and policy outcomes. The authors conclude that while MMP has not greatly changed New Zealand’s constitution, it has ‘rejuvenated’ parliament.

Shroff M., 1999. The Challenges of MMP: Changing with the Times in Governing under MMP: The Constitutional and Policy Challenges IPS Policy Paper (1) pp. 21-26

Marie Shroff was the secretary of the Cabinet and the clerk of the executive council at the time of New Zealand’s transition to MMP. In this article, she details her experience in these roles and her job in ensuring that systems were in place to allow the coalition of National and NZ First to function in an orderly environment. She discusses preparing for MMP and the issues that arose once MMP had been established. These included the issue of coalitions being a ‘political compact’ rather than a legally enforceable agreement, collective responsibility, the rising influence of smaller interest groups and the stronger and more complex relationship between the executive and parliament. Her conclusion is that the MMP process was that of refurbishing, clarifying and educating, not a completely new enterprise.

Simpson A. (ed.) 1998. The Constitutional implications of MMP Wellington: Occasional Publication no. 9, School of Political Science and International Relations, Victoria University of Wellington.

This book is a collection of papers presented at a conference entitled The Constitutional implications of MMP, held in Wellington in May 1996. It contains articles by key figures involved in, and responsible for the implementation of MMP - politicians, public servants, political scientists and lawyers. Some of the subjects include: the Treaty of Waitangi, Parliament, the role of the Governor-General and the Political Executive. The concluding remarks by Cheryl Saunders, the founding Director of the Centre for Comparative Constitutional Studies at University of Melbourne, sum up some of the key points regarding the constitutional implications of MMP made during the conference. She organises these into five broad theme which are that MMP is not as ‘radical’ as some of its opponents might believe, that it is the result of a process of constitutional change which has been evolving over time, that change will continue and that there are in fact constitutional implications of MMP, and finally that some of these implications are unknown. This is a fascinating book to read as it draws on a wealth of knowledge from people across different disciplines and fields, all who seek to understand what MMP might mean for New Zealand.

State Services Commission. 1995. Working Under PR: A Reference for the Public Service. Wellington.

This guide published by the State Services Commission prior to the change to MMP, aims to ‘summarise the broad constitutional and other principles within which the public service currently operates and to describe how these are translated into the systems and processes of executive government.’ It is divided into clear headings such as the working life of parliament, the budget process and executive government. It also provides five appendices; the practise of government in overseas jurisdictions, the status and funding of political parties in overseas jurisdictions, focusing on countries such as Germany, Sweden, and Ireland, parliamentary support services in New Zealand, Australian caretaker conventions and consultation guidelines and the electoral process under MMP. Prior to each chapter, the key points are listed with corresponding paragraph numbers, which makes information clear and easy to find.

Useful for an overview on the public service and parliament, but less helpful regarding MMP and its affect on the public service.

Temple P., 1993. Making Your Vote Count Twice: Referendum ’93: MMP vs FFP. Dunedin: McIndoe Publishers.

This is a follow up to “Making Your Vote Count: Referendum 92” by the same author which was published prior to the 92 referendum. This guide, as the title suggests, focuses on the 93 referendum, on electoral reform rather than parliamentary reform.

It is written in the form of answers to key questions such as “What are the advantages of PR for New Zealand?” Part One deals with examining the existing system and the case for change, while Part Two looks at the alternative of MMP. The author supports PR over FPP and he advocates greater representation for women, Maori and ethnic groups. He also notes that MMP “demands accountability from MPs and parties”. Overall this is a useful source for quick and easily accessible information.

Vowles J., 2005. New Zealand: The Consolidation of Reform in M. Gallagher and P. Mitchell (eds.) The Politics of Electoral Systems. Oxford: Oxford University Press

Political scientist Jack Vowles provides an excellent summary of MMP in New Zealand in this collection which explores electoral systems throughout the world. Vowles discusses the history and origins of MMP, its political consequences and the politics of electoral reform. He also discusses MMP and its effect on parties, particularly the smaller parties, such as the Greens whose 1999 campaign saw them cross the 5% threshold through the strong support for one of their candidates. Vowles concludes that MMP has led to better representation in New Zealand and the electoral system no longer so easily facilitates extremes of majoritarianism. The book itself provides an excellent chance to compare New Zealand’s electoral system with those of other countries.

Vowles J. and P. Aimer (eds.) 1994. Double Decision: The 1993 Election and referendum in New Zealand Wellington: Occasional Publication no. 6, School of Political Science and International Relations, Victoria University of Wellington.

A collaboration by political scientists, party members, journalists and public servants; this book is a study of the 1993 election and the referendum that led to MMP in New Zealand. It is divided into four sections – party perspectives, issues and the campaign, the referendum and the election. For MMP references, the referendum section with its chapters on themes, coalitions and campaigns is particularly interesting. Alan McRobie’s chapter entitled “Final and Binding: The 1993 Referendum” provides a detailed analysis of the referendum, including a comparison with the results from 1992. He also examines the geographical, socio-economic and party allegiance factors. This book is a clear and insightful view into New Zealand’s final election under FPP, and useful for those who want an insight into the political environment prior to electoral reform.

Vowles J., P. Aimer, S. Banducci and J. Karp (eds.) 1998. Voters Victory? New Zealand’s First Election Under Proportional Representation Auckland: Auckland University Press.

A study of New Zealand’s first election under MMP in 1996, this book is helpful for anyone wanting an overview of how the practical transition of a change in electoral system occurred. Of particular interest were the chapters on ‘Expectations of Change’ by Vowles, Aimer, Banducci and Karp, ‘Representation under a Proportional System’ by Banducci and Karp and ‘Voter Rationality and the Advent of MMP’ by Jack Vowles. The first of these chapters’ deals with expectations of what MMP would bring, the opposition of the Business Round Table, and the contribution of political science literature to the argument for change. The chapter on representation measures representation and the results of the ’96 election and includes useful tables on the representation of Maori and women in New Zealand. The final chapter examines the vents between October 1993 and November 1996, concentrating on political events and party competition, as well as the reactions of voters and political actors towards MMP.

Vowles J., P. Aimer, H. Catt, J. Lamare and R. Miller (eds.) 1995. Towards MMP in Towards Consensus: The 1993 Election in New Zealand and the Transition to Proportional Representation Auckland: Auckland University Press.

Published in 1995, prior to the first MMP election, this chapter speculates on what MMP might mean for New Zealand. Made up of some of New Zealand’s leading political scientists, the authors discuss the public feeling of disillusionment in politics that led to support for changing the electoral system, and the role of “tomorrows parties”. This chapter includes a number of figures on the ideological clusters of New Zealand voters in 1993 and discussion on where political parties fall in relation to this ideological scale. The authors note the importance of consensus as being seen as a process, not a state, and feel that coalition partners under MMP will have to negotiate and compromise in order to gain common polices, fostering a greater amount of consensus in New Zealand. They close by describing New Zealand as about to become a “laboratory of political reform.”

Vowles J., P. Aimer, J. Karp, S. Banducci, R. Miller and A. Sullivan (eds.) 2002. Proportional Representation on Trial: The 1999 New Zealand General Election and the Fate of MMP Auckland: Auckland University Press.

Proportional Representation on Trial is a study of the 1999 general election and evaluates how MMP has fared since its introduction in New Zealand. Of particular note to this bibliography is the third part of this book entitled “Evaluating MMP”. It contains two useful chapters; firstly, ‘Public Opinion, Public Knowledge and the Electoral System’ by Vowles, Karp, Banducci and Aimer and secondly, ‘Reviewing MMP’ by Vowles, Karp, Banducci, Aimer and Miller. The first of these examines public opinion and knowledge of MMP and response to change in electoral systems. It includes tables of preference on retaining or replacing MMP with data from 1993-2001 and preferences for coalition or single party majority governments with data from 1998-2001. The second chapter looks at the parliamentary review of MMP in August 2001, and is one of the few studies that deal with more recent events in the history of MMP in New Zealand. The authors note the mixed outcome of the parliamentary review committee, which was made up of MPs from across the political spectrum. They also examine options for change, such as number of MPs, closed or open lists or another referendum. A suggestion is made for the appointment of an independent body, similar to the Royal Commission, to review and make recommendations on important constitutional matters.

Wallace J., 2002, Reflections on Constitutional and Other Issues Concerning Our Electoral System: The Past and The Future in Political Science, Vol. 54 (1), Wellington: Dunmore Press Magazines, pp. 47-66.

Presented by Sir John Wallace, former chair of the Royal Commission on the Electoral System and first chairman of the Electoral Commission, this paper reviews the decisions of the 1985 - 1986 Royal Commission on the Electoral System.

The paper is an interesting look at why the Commission recommended MMP rather than the FFP system and provides an excellent summarized history of MMP in New Zealand. Among the issues discussed by Wallace are Business Interests and MMP, Politicians and MMP, Power of Minor Parties, Maori Representation and the Number of MPs in Parliament. Wallace supports the work of the Electoral Commission to provide an independent voice to politicians and its work in promoting the understanding of MMP for voters. At the time of publication, Wallace believes it is still too soon to ask voters to make a final judgment about the future or success of MMP and concludes that MMP appears to have created more negotiation and consultation in the legislative process and that parliament has become considerably more representative.

Ward L.J., 1998. Second Class MPs? New Zealand’s Adaption to Mixed-Member Parliamentary Representation in Political Science Vol.49 (2) pp. 125-152

Written as part of the New Zealand Political Change Project, this article examines representation under MMP, paying particular attention to the MPs elected through the lists and the validity of the “commonly expressed views of the 55 list MPs that they are ‘second-class’ MPs”. Ward discusses the notion of list MPs as being “second class” as being fuelled by their parliamentary colleagues, the media and the public. List MPs are frequently perceived as lacking a public mandate, ‘unqualified’ for their job and with sole responsibility to the party that saw them elected. Ward then discusses issues such as constitutional and institutional roles of MPs, their social and political backgrounds and legitimacy and mandate of political representatives. The author includes a number of charts and tables to compare MPs educational qualifications, their parliamentary experience and the number of women and Maori MPs. In conclusion, Ward notes that the roles of electorate and list MPs are extremely similar, with the only significant difference being their modes of election. However, Ward does observe that this is a very significant difference that results in difficulties for the public who are used to single member constituencies. It is argued that it may take time for legitimacy of list MPs to be established, but that they have an important role to play and a unique responsibility to the “electorate of New Zealand”. A very interesting article, covering a topic not frequently addressed in the literature on MMP in New Zealand.

Witcombe A., 2002. Germany and New Zealand; A Comparison of MMP Committee Systems in Public Sector Vol. 25 (4) pp. 12- 17

The author has spent time doing research at the Reichstag in Berlin and has worked in New Zealand’s House of Representatives. In this article, he compares the Bundestag, Germanys House of Representatives with New Zealand and suggests ideas for reform. He notes three aspects of the Bundestag committee system: the permanent committees, the investigation committees and the study commissions. He then compares German and New Zealand examples of each one of these, as well as public policy development, Chairpersons, legislative function and budget scrutiny. Witcombe concludes that underpinning the German system is the principle of proportionality and suggests that this is also a factor in the New Zealand electoral system, but that it is applied on a more ad-hoc basis. He notes that minority rights also deserve New Zealand’s attention, as proportionality and minority rights protect smaller parliamentary groups against the political majority and foster a more consensual approach to decision making.

Note: Other New Zealand sources that contain a number of articles concerning MMP are National Business Review and The Independent newspapers and Management magazine; however the articles were too numerous to mention individually in this bibliography.